Preparation AND Evaluation OF Materials PDF

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Focus: PREPARATION AND EVALUATION OF MATERIALS LET Competencies: 1. Define and discuss the role, design, and use of instructional materials 2. Distinguish between and among types of Instructional materials

A. INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS (IMs for Teaching Language) 

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Instructional materials may be operationally defined as especially designed classroom tools which contain instructions to learners and teachers, and which specify each increment of learning: the content to be learned; the techniques of presentation; practice and use of that content; and the modes of teaching associated with those techniques (Johnson, RELC Journal) Instructional materials generally serve as the basis for much of the language input learners receive and the language practice that occurs in the classroom (Richards) IMs are an important element within the curriculum and are often the most tangible and visible aspect of it (Nunan, 1991) They can provide a detailed specification of content, even in the absence of the syllabus (Richards and Rodgers, 1986). They can define the goals of the syllabus, and the roles of the teachers and the learner within the instructional process (Wright, 1987)

Role of Instructional Materials Cunningsworth (1995) summarizes the role of materials (particularly course books) in language teaching as a:      

resource for presentation materials source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc. source of stimulation and ideas for classroom activities syllabus (where they reflect learning objectives which have already been determined) support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain in confidence in the language classroom.

Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) suggest that for teachers of ESP courses, materials serve the following functions:  As a source of language  As a learning support  For motivation and stimulation  For reference BASIC PRINCIPLES in MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT (Tomlinson, 1998)  Materials should achieve impact.  Materials should help learners to feel at ease.  Materials should help learners to develop confidence.  What is being taught should be perceived by learners as relevant and useful.  Materials should require and facilitate learner self-investment.  Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught.  Materials should expose the learners to language in authentic use.  The learners’ attention should be drawn to linguistic features of the input.  Materials should provide the learners with opportunities to use the target language to achieve communicative competence.  Materials should take into account that the positive effects of instruction are usually delayed.  Materials should take into account that learners differ in learning styles.  Materials should take into account that learners differ in affective attitudes.  Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction.

PREPARATION AND EVALUATION OF MATERIALS

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Materials should maximize learning potential by encouraging intellectual, aesthetic and emotional involvement which stimulates both right and left brain activities. Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice. Materials should provide opportunities for outcome feedback.

BENEFITS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Teachers  Provide materials for presentation of new items for reinforcement, consolidation, and practice  Provide materials for teaching particular skills, particular areas of languages, and other special difficulties  Guide the teacher on the methods and techniques in introducing the lessons and the series of exercises for teaching the concepts  Give them more opportunity to make the best use of their time and skills to do more real teaching Students  Concretize the syllabus  Opportunity for individual work in or outside the classroom  Follow a course of study with little help from teachers TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 1. Textbook  Main reference for the entire course  Usually chosen by the school  Reflects the minimum learning competencies for specific levels  Arranged in units or chapters which can be labeled according to themes, topics, skills, grammar structures or functions depending on the syllabus type followed.  Contains readings, teaching points, drills, activities, and tasks for every day lessons 2. Workbook / Skillbook  Usually accompanies the textbook  Provides exercises and drills on specific skills in listening, speaking, reading and writing  Presents reinforcement and remedial activities to support lessons in the textbooks 3. Teacher’s Book/ Teacher’s Manual / Teacher’s Guide  Contains a detailed rationale for textbook  Explain the scope and the sequence for the lessons  Includes introductory notes on how to use the textbooks, specific objectives for each lessons and suggested strategies for teaching the lessons  Provides guidance in planning the lessons from materials to suggested activities 4. Work Text  Combines the features of the textbooks and workbooks  Provides teaching points like those in the textbook  Reinforces the teaching points with many drills and exercises just like those that contain an A-Z or practical suggestions for teaching 5. Module and Self-Learning kit (SLK)  More interactive than the other types of written IMs that appear in the workbook  Develops independent study through self-paced instruction  Contains post-test, pre-test, lesson inputs, exercises and drills – provisions for self-paced learning 6. Reference Book  Provides general information on various topics  Includes encyclopedia, dictionary, atlas, manuals, etc. 7. Multimedia Instructional materials  Audio and Visual materials accessible through various media like radio, television and the computer  Also includes interactive courseware on various topics

FACTORS AFFECTING MATERIALS PREPARATION 1. The curriculum, syllabus, and learning competencies 2. Learners’ learning styles, aptitudes, proficiency 3. Pedagogical principles held by the teachers 4. Societal demands FRAMEWORKS OF MATERIALS AND METHODS

LEARNERS CONTEXT

IMPLEMENTATION OF GOALS EDUCATIONAL SETTING SYLLABUS CONSTRUCTION

McDonough and Shaw (2000) present the following framework for materials and methods. The framework reveals that materials and methods cannot be seen in isolation but are embedded within a broader professional context.

MATERIALS, CLASSROOM METHODS (lessons, tests…)

Contextual Factors 1.Learner factors- age, interests, level of proficiency in English, aptitude, mother tongue, academic and educational level, attitudes in learning, motivation, reasons for learning, preferred learning styles, and personality 2.Setting- role of English in the country; role of English in the school; management and administration; resources available; support personnel; the number of pupils; time available for the program; physical environment; the socio-cultural environment; types of tests to be used; and procedures for monitoring and evaluating. A syllabus is an expression of opinion on the nature of language and learning; it acts as a guide for both teacher and learner by providing some goals to be attained. Hutchinson and Waters (1987:80) define syllabus as ‘at its simplest level a syllabus can be described as a statement of what is to be learnt. It reflects language and linguistic performance.’ This is a rather traditional interpretation of syllabus focusing as it does on outcomes rather than on process. However, a syllabus can also be seen as a "summary of the content to which learners will be exposed" (Yalden.1987: 87). It is seen as an approximation of what will be taught and that it cannot accurately predict what will be learnt. Syllabus is the overall organizing principle for what is to be taught and learned. It is the way in which content is organized and broken down into a set of teachable and learnable units, and will include considerations on pacing, sequencing and grading items’ methods of presentation and practice, etc. Syllabus inventory is a list of the content to be covered in the language program much like a content outline. Richards and Rodgers (1986) presents a useful framework for the comparison of the language teaching methods which illustrates the place of syllabus in the program planning. The Model has three levels: approach, design and procedure.  Approach refers to the views and beliefs or theories of language and language learning on which planning is based.  Design converts the principles in the fist level (approach) into more practical aspects of syllabus and instructional materials.  Procedure refers to the techniques and management of the classroom itself. Types of Syllabus (Reilley) Although six different types of language teaching syllabi are treated here as though each

occurred “purely,” in practice, these types rarely occur independently of each other. Almost all actual language-teaching syllabi are combination of two or more of the types. The characteristics, differences, strengths, and weaknesses of individual syllabi are defined as follows:

1. Structural (formal) Syllabus  The content of language teaching is a collection of the forms and structures, usually grammatical, of the language being taught.  Examples include nouns, verbs, adjectives, statements, questions, subordinate clauses, and so on.

Issue/Criticism: One problem facing the syllabus designer pursuing a grammatical order to sequencing input is that the ties connecting the structural items maybe rather feeble. A more fundamental criticism is that the grammatical syllabus focuses on only one aspect of language: the grammar; however in truth there exist many more aspects to be considered in language. Recent corpus based research suggest there is a divergence between the grammar of the spoken and of the written language, raising implications for the grading of content in grammar based syllabuses. 2. A notional/ functional syllabus  The content of the language teaching is a collection of the functions that are performed when language is used, or of the notions that a language is used to express  Examples of the functions includes: informing, agreeing, apologizing, requesting; examples of notions includes age, size, color, comparison, time, and so on. Issue/Criticism: In order to establish objectives, the needs of the learners will have to be analyzed by the various types of communication in which the learner has to confront. Consequently, needs analysis has an association with notional-functional syllabuses. Although needs analysis implies a focus on the learner, critics of this approach suggest that a new list has replaced the old one. Where once structural/situational items were used, a new list consisting of notions and functions has become the main focus in a syllabus. "Language functions do not usually occur in isolation" and there are also difficulties in selecting and grading function and form. Clearly, the task of deciding whether a given function (i.e. persuading), is easier or more difficult than another (i.e. approving), makes the task harder to approach. 3. Situational syllabus  The content of the language teaching is a collection of real or imaginary situations in which language occurs or is used. A situation usually involves several participants who are engaged in some activity in a specific meeting.  The language occurring in the situation involves a number of functions, combined into a plausible segment of discourse.  The primary purpose of a situational language-teaching syllabus is to teach the language that occurs in the specific situations.  Examples of the situations include: seeing the dentist, complaining to the landlord, buying a book, meeting a new student, and so on. 4. A skill-based syllabus  The content of the language teaching is a collection of specific abilities that may play a part using language.  Skills are things that people must be able to do to be competent in a language, relatively independent of the situation or setting in which the language use can occur. While the situational syllabi group functions together into specific settings of the language use, skillbased syllabi group linguistic competencies (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse) together into generalized types of behavior, such as listening to spoken language for main idea, writing well-formed paragraphs, giving effective oral presentations, and so on.  The primary purpose of the skill-based instruction is to learn specific language skills.  A possible secondary purpose is to develop more general competence in the language, learning only incidentally any information that may be available while applying the language skills. 5. A task-based syllabus  The content of the teaching is a series of complex and purposeful tasks that the student wants or need to perform with the language they are learning.  The tasks are defined as activities with a purpose other than language learning, but, as in the content-based syllabus, the performance of the tasks is approached in a way intended to develop second language ability.  Tasks integrate language (and other) skills in specific settings of the language.

Task-based teaching differs from situation-based teaching in that while situational teaching has the goal of teaching the specific language content that occurs in the situation (pre-defined products), task-based teaching has the goal of teaching students to draw on resources to complete some piece of work (a process). The students draw on a variety of language forms, functions, and skills often in an individual and unpredictable way, in completing the tasks.  Tasks can be used for language learning are, generally, tasks that the learners actually have to perform in real life. Examples include: Applying for a job, talking with a social worker, getting housing information over the telephone, and so on. 6. A content-based syllabus  The primary purpose of the instruction is to teach some content or information using the language that the students are also learning.  The students are simultaneously language students and students of whatever content is being taught.  The subject matter is primary, and the language learning occurs incidentally to the content learning. The content teaching is not organized around the language teaching, but vice-versa.  Content-based language teaching is concerned with information, while task-based language teaching is concerned with communicative and cognitive processes.  An example of content-based language teaching is a science class taught in the language the students need or want to learn, possibly with linguistic adjustment to make science more comprehensible. Syllabus Designs  Multi-syllabus  Lexical  Process Many would have a primary and secondary organizing principle like: At the bank: question forms At a garage: imperatives At a hotel: present perfect FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN WRITING IMs (ORNSTEIN) 1. Understanding requires matching the materials to the learners’ abilities and prior knowledge. If students do not understand the materials, frustration sets in, making learning more difficult. The teacher/writer must know whether the materials are suited to the level of the students and whether they will understand those. Thus, the teacher/writer must provide for background lessons and check-up activities and exercises to assess students’ understanding. This is especially important for younger and slower students and when introducing new concepts. 2. Structuring /Clarifying involves organizing the material so that it is clear to the students. It is especially important when new subject matter is introduced, and when it is being linked to the previous lessons.  Directions, objectives, and main ideas are stated clearly. Internal and final summaries cover the content.  Transition between main ideas is smooth and well integrated.  Writing is not vague.  Sufficient examples are provided.  New terms are defined  Adequate practice and review assignments reinforce new learning. 3. Sequencing refers to the arrangement of the materials to provide for continuous and cumulative learning where complex concepts are taken only after prerequisite skills and concepts have been mastered. There are four basic ways of sequencing a material:  Simple to complex  Parts to whole  Whole to parts  Chronological arrangements 4. Balancing materials require establishing vertical and horizontal balance or relationships. Vertical relationships refer to a building of content and experiences in the lesson, unit and course level. Fourth grade language concepts build on third grade concepts; the second unit plan builds on the first, etc. Horizontal relationships establish a multidisciplinary and unified view of different subjects; for example the content of the social studies course is related to English and science. 

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Explaining refers to the way headings, terms, illustrations, and summary exercises are integrated with the content. Does the example illustrate major concepts? Are the major ideas identified in the chapter objectives and overview? Do the headings outline a logical development of content? Do the materials show relationships among topics, events, facts to present an in-depth view of major concepts? The students should be able to discover

important concepts and information and relate new knowledge on their own through the materials. 6.

Pacing refers to how much and how quickly the lessons in the textbooks are presented. The volume or length of the materials should not overwhelm students, but there must be enough to have an effect. As students get older, the amount of materials can increase, the presentation can be longer and more complex and the breadth and depth can be expanded.

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Reviewing refers to the extent to which the material allows students to link new ideas to old concepts in the form of a review. High-achieving and older students can tolerate more rapid pacing than low-achieving and younger students, thus less proficient learners would need more review or linking than the more proficient ones.

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Elaborating ensures that students learn better through a variety of ways. The idea is to provide in the textbook opportunities for students to transform information to one form to another, and to apply new information to new knowledge – by using various techniques such as comparing and contrasting, drawing inferences, paraphrasing, summarizing and predicting. A series of elaboration strategies help students learn new materials. The author must provide students with a broad list of questions (of comparing and contrasting, drawing, analogies, etc.)

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Transfer of Learning may be done in a number of ways. Transfer of learning maybe concept-related, inquiry-related, learner or utilization-related. The first two organizers seem to work best with intrinsically motivated students and the second two best with student who needs to be extrinsically motivated. Since most students need some extrinsic motivation, learner-related and utilization-related materials will be more effective with majority of students.  Concept-related, drawing heavily on structure of knowledge, the concepts, principles, or the theories of the subject.  Inquiry-related, derived from critical thinking skills and procedures employed by learning theorists or scholars in the field.  Learner-related, related to the needs, interest or experiences of the students.  Utilization-related -show how people can use or proceed with them in real life situations.

PRINCIPLES IN MATERIALS DESIGN (NUNAN, 1988) 2. Materials should be clearly linked to the curriculum they serve. The curriculum cycle below illustrates the three phases of the curriculum development PHASE 1 Curriculum Planning Identify learner needs Set goals and objectives Write Materials W it t t

PHASE 2 Curriculum Implementation Instruct learners Monitor and adapt instruction Wri...