Principles Of Exercise Sport Science - Revision Notes PDF

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Biomechanics

Scalars - are quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical value) alone. E.g 5m Vectors - are quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction. E.g 30m/sec east Power - Rate of doing work Work - Product of force and distance through which the force has moved the load. w = F x d (joules) Energy - Capacity to do work Kinetic Energy - Moving object has the capacity to do work due to its motion Velocity (v) - Rate of change in position with respect to time in a particular direction (vector) Velocity = Δx / Δt x = displacement t = time Acceleration (a) – Rate of change of velocity with respect to time (vector) Acceleration = Δvelocity / Δtime Equations of Motion - Algebraic expressions t = time, x = position, vf= final velocity, vi = initial velocity, a = acceleration, Δ= change/difference vf= vI+ at Δx = vit+1/2at2 vf2= vi2+ 2aΔx

Angular Displacement (θ) - Displacement of an object around a central axis in a circle (vector)  Gymnast swinging on uneven bars  Head of a golf club Angular displacement expressed in terms of change in angle In degrees or radians from the right hand horizontal Radians = degrees x π/180

Angular Velocity (ω) - Expressed in terms of degrees/s or rad/s Not m/s as it is always changing direction, therefore, degrees per second Calculated by ω= Δθ/ Δt Angular Acceleration (α) - Calculated by α= Δω/ Δt Force - Concept used to describe the interaction of an object with its surroundings (vector) Newtons (N) Torque (Moment of Force) - Capability of force to produce rotation (moment of force) – moment means lever Torque= force x length of moment arm T (N.m) = F (N) x L (m) N.m=newton meters Equilibrium – Zero velocity = static equilibrium Non-zero velocity = dynamic equilibrium Forces of Human Movement - 8 forces are frequently used on free body diagrams Weight, ground reaction force, joint reaction force, muscle force, intra-abdominal pressure, fluid resistance, elastic force and inertial force

Newtons Laws – Law of Inertia - “Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line except when it is compelled by external forces to change its state” Law of Acceleration - “The rate of change of velocity of a body is proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction on which the force acts” F= ma; (force = mass x acceleration)

Law of Action-Reaction - “To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction” The effect one body exerts on another is counteracted by effect of the other on the first The two bodies interact simultaneously and this interaction is referred to as a force Describe the kinematics and kinetics of normal walking gait Describe and explain the major differences between the gait patterns of children, healthy adults and elderly people Children – undeveloped til around age 7 Healthy adults – step with increases with age Elderly – speed declines due to decrease in stride length and also use more energy, plantar flexion function decreases Describe biomechanical and neuromechanical adaptations to training, specifically muscle function and muscle coordination. Resistance training increases in muscle strength and contraction speed, the total number of contracting fibres increase, muscle myofibrils increase which increases the contraction force of the fibres. Describe the changes in muscle function and coordination that can occur in response to injury   

Pain associated with muscle contraction or joint movement Decreased muscle function Altered sensory-motor feedback

Describe the effects of muscle strength and contraction speed on performance   

An increase in the number of muscle fibres An increase in the cross sectional area of existing muscle fibres, via an increase in the number of myofibrils A gradual increase in the proportion of fibres that are fast twitch (these fibres produce more force than slow twitch)

Metabolism & Exercise Physiology List and describe some of the main areas of application of Exercise Physiology that relate to health and sport. Nutrition, energy production and metabolism Identify the predominant energy systems used to produce ATP during the following types of exercise: Short term, intense (less than 10 seconds duration) ATP-PC 400 m sprint Anaerobic 20 km race Aerobic Define Oxygen deficit - Lag in oxygen uptake at the beginning of exercise Lactate threshold (anaerobic threshold) - The point during exercise of increasing intensity at which blood lactate begins to accumulate above resting levels, where lactate clearance is no longer able to keep up with lactate production

anaerobic capacity - total amount of work (W or Kj) that can be achieved in a set time maximal oxygen uptake – product of maximal cardiac output and arterio-venous difference Oxygen debt - Elevated VO2 for several minutes immediately following exercise, Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) Describe and contrast the factors of fatigue that are relevant to performance in i)

Brief, high intensity exercise (40 min)  Partial glycogen depletion  Dehydration  Increased body temperature  Low blood glucose  Disturbance of blood amino acids (central fatigue) Describe the changes that can occur in the muscular system as a result of resistance (weight) training and the time period over which they occur.

Strength: maximum force (max. weight lifted) Power: combination of contraction speed and force

Endurance: the capacity to contract repeatedly or continuously over time. Define heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output and draw a graph of their response to incremental exercise.

Stroke volume - Volume of blood pumped per beat from Left ventricle(70ml/beat) Cardiac output(Q): Product of HRxSV Total volume of blood pumped by the ventricle per min

Motor Control and Learning Describe what proprioceptors are and what they do. Proprioceptors provide information about the joint angle, muscle length and muscle tension to give information regarding the position of the limb. Types of proprioceptors – Joint kinaesthetic receptors – found in synovial joint capsules – send information back when there is movement in the joint Neuromuscular spindles – found in skeletal muscle, send information to the brain when there is a change in length or tension of the muscle Golgi tendons – found where the muscle meets the tendon and respond to stretch and contraction Labyrinth – inside ear Draw a simple diagram illustrating the structure of the central nervous system (include the efferent and afferent pathways of the sensory-motor system).

List the possible motor functions played by the brainstem, the motor cortex and the cerebellum.

Motor unit A motor unit consists of one somatic efferent (motor) neuron and all of the muscle fibers (cells) that it innervates.

Motor unit recruitment Motor unit recruitment is a measure of how many motor neurons are activated in a particular muscle, and therefore is a measure of how many muscle fibers of that muscle are activated. The higher the recruitment the stronger the muscle contraction will be.

List and describe the progressions of postural control in the first two years of life.

Provide some examples of primitive, postural and locomotor reflexes and explain when they develop. Unsure on this**** Primitive – these reflexes are innate at birth and protect the body from damage, these include Postural – Locomotor Explain the relationship between reaction time and information processing load in young children, older children and adults. Young adults have faster RT than children

RT declines slowly with age Peak performance occurs from the teens to the early 30s RT slows as the information processing load increases RT slows more in children than adults as the load increases Nevertheless, children improve their RT quickly as they mature Skill Acquisition The process of motor learning or skill acquisition can be described in three stages Verbal – Cognitive – The movement is completely new, the learner is simply thinking about body position and the main limb movements, verbal instructions are provided Associative - The movement pattern is established, fine tuning occurs, repetition is important, adding complexity to the task can occur Autonomous - The movement is almost automatic (performed without paying attention to it), attention can be directed to other tasks

Sport and Exercise Psychology What is the study of sport psychology?

Compare and contrast exercise psychology and sport psychology.

Define personality and explain why personality might be relevant to participation in physical activity and performance in sport.    

Is the sum of those characteristics that make a person unique Plays an important role in the behaviors that individuals’ exhibit Center of an individual’s personality is the psychological core o Most stable and least modifiable aspect Studying and understanding personality helps us work better with others

Explain the favoured approach to studying personality in sport and exercise. The interaction approach is the favoured approach to studying personality in sport and exercise o It acknowledges that the situation or environment can influence how we react o And that behaviour is not solely determined by personality traits o The use of personality inventories to determine how someone will perform is problematic List the three components of motivation. 

Motivation is the direction and intensity of effort – three aspects   

Direction - Whether an individual seeks out, approaches, or is attracted to certain situations Intensity - How much effort a person puts forth in a particular situation Persistence - Refers to the long-term component of motivation

Effected by:   

Degree of task difficulty Perceived risk Performance outcome

Explain the self-determination theory. People are inherently and proactively motivated to master their environment or sport Focuses on 3 personal needs:  



Autonomy (i.e. Self determination) – combination of personal control and perceived choice. Competence – the need to have optimal challenging activities to promote a feeling of competence. If the task is too hard or easy, there will be no sense of accomplishment. Relatedness – The feeling of being connected to others. According to SDT we all have the need to be accepted by others and belong to groups.

Health and Health Behaviour

The three most commonly cited barriers to physical activity listed in the study: 1. Perceived lack of time -69% of non-exercisers listed this reason 2. Lack of energy 3. Lack of motivation

Describe the arousal-performance relationship. Draw diagrams to explain the: a) Drive theory – as arousal increases so does performance

b) Inverted U hypothesis – arousal needs to be optimum to allow for peak performance

Exercise Psychology Once again the 3 components of motivation (direction, intensity, & persistence) apply to exercise motivation.   

Exercise participation motivation –refers to the direction component Exercise self-efficacy –may have implications for the intensity component Exercise adherence motivation –refers to the persistence component o Personal factors o Environmental factors (physical, social)

Trait vs. State Anxiety Trait anxiety –  A pre-disposition to perceive situations as stressful or threatening State anxiety –  The experience of apprehension at a particular point in time  A multi-dimensional concept including: o Cognitive anxiety –mental response o Somatic anxiety –physical response

The Musculoskeletal System What is the study of anatomy? Subdivided into gross (macroscopic) anatomy and microscopic anatomy Name and define the different planes of reference used in anatomy. Midsagitall plane – Vertical (left, right) Transverse plane – horizontal (superior, inferior) Coronal plane – (anterior, posterior) When considering the composition of bone, name the two different types of bone, and provide a description of the structure of each. Compact Bone – Dense Bone, reduced nutrient supply Spongy Bone – meshwork of small bony rods (trabeculae), makes the bone more springy, each osteocyte is close to a nutrient supply Name five different types of forces that bones can be exposed to, and explain how each can occur. Compression – often occurs in the bones of the lower limbs while standing Tension – can occur in the bones of theupper limb when holding a heavy load in one hand Shear – forward bending of the trunk Bending – during walking Torsion – twisting

Part B: Joint structure and function List the structural classifications of joints in the human body. Fibrous - between skull Cartilinagous – inverterbral discs Synovial – glenohumeral joint

List the functional classifications of joints in the human body. Synarthrosis – immovable Amphiarthosis – slightly movable Diarthrosis – synovial  Mono-axial Movement in one plane  Biaxial Movement in two planes  Triaxial Movement in three planes What factors contribute to joint stability? Muscles, tendons, ligaments, joint type, joint congruency More mobile a joint = less stable Part C: Introduction to the Muscular System. Describe the muscle fibre arrangement in: (a) parallel muscles – straight up and down (b)

convergent muscles – all fibres converge onto a tendon

(c) pennate muscles – diagonal and meet in the middle if bipennate (d) circular muscles - circular Briefly describe the series of events that occur to cause a muscle to contract.

Define the following types of muscle contraction: concentric – muscle shortening isometric – no movement eccentric – muscle lengthening against resistance Define the following terms: (a) longus - long (b)

magnus - big

(c)

maximus - biggest

(d)

minor - small

(e)

minimus - smallest

(f)

trapezius - trapezoid

(g)

deltoid - triangle

(e)

teres – long and round...