Problem Solving AND Decision Making 7 PDF

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it contains all the necessary information to prepare for the final exam. the exam has 50 questions. 25 multiple choice and the other half is open answer....

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403 PROBLEM SOLVING AND DECISION MAKING What Did You Decide? You have likely made hundreds of decisions today, many of which you are unaware of. You decided what time to get up and what to wear. Later, you decided who to hang out with and what to do with your time. In addition, during adolescence, you are faced with important decisions with lasting consequences like what kinds of activities you’ll participate in and what career you’ll pursue after high school. There is no better time to fine tune your decision-making and problem-solving skills. These same skills will continue to serve you throughout your life. In this lesson, you will learn more about how we process information. In addition, you will learn how to solve problems and make decisions. You will use what you have learned to complete a brief quiz

Objectives: • • •

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

define cognitive processes involved in understanding information define processes involved in problem solving and decision making discuss non-human problem solving

The Brain As we learned in an earlier module, the brain gathers and processes information from the environment much like a computer. New information is added to existing schema, and new structures for organizing information are created. Individuals use elaboration, chunking, mnemonic devices, and other cognitive strategies to ensure that information is retained for use. In order to effectively problem solve, individuals must be able to access this information and make judgments about its relative importance. Fortunately, the brain is well-equipped to handle these tasks.

PROBLEM SOLVING VERSUS DECISION MAKING The terms problem solving and decision making are often used interchangeably. So what’s the difference? Problem solving is a process used to resolve a dilemma. Decision making is a piece of this process. When an individual has gathered information and evaluated each possible solution, he decides on a course of action. This act of decision making is the result of the problem-solving process. Solving Problems While many of the decisions we make are unconscious, you may occasionally face a dilemma that requires serious deliberation. John Dewey, an educator, first proposed using reflective thinking to solve problems. By answering a series of questions, individuals consider possible solutions and develop a plan of action. This process has been revised over time. The following seven-step process for problem solving is one adaption of Dewey’s method:

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Charlie’s Dilemma Charlie, a high school senior, has not decided what to do after graduation. He studied hard and earned a 3.8 GPA, making him an excellent candidate for community college, technical school, or a four-year university. He has worked for a mechanic since he turned 16 and earns a good wage. His boss has offered him an apprenticeship position so that he can further develop his skills and play an important role in the future of the shop. Charlie’s parents really want him to go to college but were unable to make financial arrangements for him to do so. Charlie is unsure what to do. Let’s see how Charlie can use the seven-step problem-solving process:

Step One: Define the problem. By stating the problem, step one limits the scope of the dilemma. A problem statement clearly describing the dilemma is created, and then information related to that problem is gathered. Hard data, such as facts and figures, and soft data, such as feelings about events, help to form a comprehensive picture of the dilemma. Review the following chart to understand how Charlie defines his problem: Define the problem. Charlie must decide whether to go to community college, technical school, a four-year university, or continue working at the auto shop as an apprentice.

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Step Two: Analyze the problem. During step two, the problem is further analyzed. Dewey suggested asking a series of questions to determine the seriousness, causes, and effects of the problem. Questions may include: • • •

How long has the problem existed? What limits our ability to solve the problem? What additional information is needed before developing solutions to the problem?

Take a look at a brief analysis of Charlie’s dilemma: Analyze the problem. Charlie has been considering options for more than two years with no resolution. The decision will affect his plans for the next year and his earning potential and job satisfaction. Charlie recognizes that he has several good options.

Step Three: Identify possible solutions. During step three, as many solutions to the problem as possible are developed using creative thinking techniques. This process is called solution generation. It is important not to judge the feasibility of solutions at this point. The focus is quantity and diversity versus quality. Creative thinking techniques include brainstorming. During brainstorming, the individual or the group is encouraged to generate as many ideas as possible without criticism or discussion. One idea may be inspired by another idea in a phenomenon called “piggy-backing.” Review the chart below to understand Charlie’s possible solutions: Identify possible solutions. • Charlie can attend technical school. • Charlie can go to a four-year university. • Charlie can to to community college. • Charlie can continue to work at the auto shop. • Charlie can continue to work at the auto shop part-time while attending community college or technical school.

Step Four: Evaluate solutions. After generating a list of possible solutions, these solutions must be evaluated according to criteria. The criteria are often specific to the problem and should be applied to each possible solution. It may be necessary to prioritize criteria. For example, when making a career decision, one person may rank salary as more important than personal satisfaction while another may rank satisfaction as more important than salary. Prioritizing criteria can assist with decision making in the case of a tie. Strategies for evaluation include using a t-chart to list pros and cons or developing a rating scale for each criterion. The following questions may be used to help develop criteria: • •

What are the short-term effects of the possible solution? What are the long-term effects of the possible solution?

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• •

Do the pros of the solution outweigh the cons? Do the cons outweigh the pros?

Review the following to see what criteria Charlie used to evaluate his possible solutions: Evaluate solutions. Charlie decided that he would base his decision on three criteria—potential earnings, expenses, and personal satisfaction. He listed potential earnings in 5 to 10 years and for each option, approximate living expenses each year for the next 10 years, and his score on a 1-5 anticipated personal satisfaction scale.

Step Five: Select the best solution. Based on the criteria selected, the individual or group is now prepared to make a decision. The decision-making step is the result of all previous steps. Careful consideration of possible solutions results in selection of a best course of action. See Charlie’s decision: Based on his criteria, attending technical college and working part-time at the auto shop is the best solution.

Step Six: Develop an action plan. To develop an action plan, the individual must create a list of action steps, including deadlines for completion. This action plan should include a way to obtain necessary resources and materials to successfully carry out the solution. These resources may include financial resources and materials. It may also include asking for help from individuals who may provide guidance or assistance. The action plan may also need to include enough flexibility to handle unforeseen events. Seldom does an “action plan” go exactly as planned. The more time spent on the front end anticipating these events, the more likely the action plan will be successfully implemented. Review Charlie’s action plan below: Develop an action plan. • • • •

Apply for technical school (deadline —2 weeks) Apply for financial aid (deadline—2 weeks) Discuss work schedule and training opportunities with boss (deadline —3 weeks) Discuss living arrangements and rent with parents (deadline —3 weeks)

Step Seven: Implement a solution. It is now time to act! Either the individual or group should work to accomplish the action plan according to the defined steps and by the appropriate deadlines. It is important that all involved take responsibility and are motivated to implement the solution, knowing that the solution was chosen as the result of careful consideration. Two important ongoing pieces of implementation are monitoring and evaluating results. Monitoring means that individuals must ensure that actions are recorded and that progress is evaluated on a regular basis. Depending on the timeline, progress may be assessed daily or

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weekly. Finally, after the action plan is implemented, it is important to evaluate the results. Did the action plan solve the problem? If not, it may be necessary to begin again at step one. See how Charlie’s action plan was implemented: Implement a solution. • Charlie applies for and gains admission to technical school. He also gets pre-approved for student loans to cover his tuition. His boss agrees to a part-time schedule and offers continued training. •

Charlie plans to return to full-time work during semesters breaks and after he earns his certification in two years. His parents agree to allow him to continue to live at home for a small rent to assist with meals.

MYTHBUSTERS: Can animals solve problems? When faced with a dilemma, do animals use reasoning to solve the problem? It is clearly unlikely that they use Dewey’s reflective thinking or the seven-step problem-solving process outlined above, but can they have an “aha” moment? Research seems to indicate that some animals have moments of realization. The results are controversial, however, because animals cannot explain their reasoning like we can. By observing responses to problems, researchers assume learning based on results. For example, a popular experiment using animal subjects includes a string tied to food placed out of reach. In several studies, various species have successfully pulled the string to get the food. In a similar experiment, an animal has access to multiple strings. That animal is likely to try each string until finding the food. The animal’s memory of the first attempt affects the next attempt. Mammals were relatively more successful than birds. This research suggests that animals do learn from previous experience, as they are able to apply successful strategies from previous attempts to a new scenario. Further research is needed to determine the neurological pathways related to problem solving and the similarity of these pathways between animals and humans.

04.03 Problem Solving and Decision Making Complete the reading for this lesson. Complete and submit the 04.03 Problem Solving and Decision Making Quiz. 1. Problem solving requires that individuals . . . 2. When processing information from the environment, the brain acts much like a . . . 3. What are some descriptions of the relationship between problem solving and decision making? 4. Decision making is part of . . . 5. Veronica has limited time and money for afterschool activities and must choose only two to

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participate in. What stage of the problem-solving process is she in? 6. Alex listed all of the possible ways he could assist his neighbors with community clean-up. This stage of the problem-solving process is called . . . 7. After choosing the best solution, an individual must . . . 8. After implementing the action plan, it is important to . . . 9. Mike determines which criteria he will use to determine which solution to his problem is best. He prioritizes these criteria based on what is most important to him. Which stage of the problem-solving process includes this action? 10. Marcus lists the things he'll need to do to solve his problem and assigns each task a deadline. Which stage of the problem-solving process includes this action? 11. It is difficult to determine if animals solve problems like humans do because . . . 12. Animal studies indicate that . . . 13. Describes problem-solving behavior in animals....