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Explores the idea of proto-feminism, this is a display of feminism in literary characters before the word feminism had been created. ...

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PROTOFEMINISM: PATRIARCHY IN LITERATURE

Abstract The concept of patriarchy has often been criticized in feminist criticism. However, a diachronic study of the representation and manifestation of patriarchy in literature is paramount and fundamental to a deeper understanding of the concept and its role in feminist criticism. In this study, the manifestation of patriarchy in three ‘protofeminist’ texts are revealed and criticized. The texts are Thomas Wyatt’s ‘Whoso List to Hunt,’ Thomas Hardy’s Mayor of Casterbridge, and William Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice. The article further relates the culturally subversive acts of the female characters to “grains of wheat” that germinated into the Feminist Movement. Kate Millet’s, Simone de Beauvoir’s and Elaine Showalter’s approaches to Feminism are also referred to.

Keywords: protofeminism, feminism, patriarchy

1. Introduction Patriarchy, as a word, will be one of the many words to lose its original meaning and usage by the end of the 21 st century. It has become, recently, a rejuvenated concept that occupies the lips of revolutionary feminists. Etymologically, the word is derived from Greek patriarkhia which means a 1

“system of society or government by fathers or elder males of the community.” The above definition asserts that patriarchy as a ‘system’ is manifested in the ‘society’ and in ‘government.’ Thus, a society or government that encourages or upholds the governance or rule of male in a community is patriarchal. A distinguishing feature of such societies and governments is that it is often patrilineal. However, the term has been recreated to mean “an unjust social system that enforces gender roles and is oppressive to both men and women.” Phrases frequently associated with patriarchy include: male chauvinism, male dominance, sexism, male supremacy etc. Essentially, the fervent supporters of the latter definition argues that, as a system, patriarchal domination is exhibited in the cultural, social, economic, political and even ideological ramifications of life. In addition, it is simultaneously revealed in large and subtle ways throughout the world. In this article, the latter definition is employed. One of the major goals of feminists is to eradicate every form of patriarchy in all spheres of life. To an extremist, it includes painting the word as pejorative and if possible, omitting it from the English lexicon. In relating the ‘levirate’ custom found among many Oriental peoples in ancient past, which includes the “sacrifice [of widows] on their husbands’ tombs,” Simone de Beauvoir (1949) refers to such practices as a form of patriarchy called “radical patriarchy.” Sylvia Walby in Theorizing Patriarchy postulates two forms of patriarchy: private and public. She asserts that the private form of patriarchy involves the denial of “access to paid employment” which results in the woman necessarily dependent on the man whom might be the father or husband. On the contrary, the public form of patriarchy allows women access to paid employment but disallow equal payment with the men. In addition, they are publically subordinated to the men and given lower status. 2

In the world of literature, the role of women is considered “second-class.” Until the 19th century, the feminine gender was not allowed to write publicly. In fact, they were disallowed from going to school. However, few stood their ground and radically achieved a breakthrough of the male chauvinistic world. Some of these include Hildegard of Bingen, Julian of Norwich, Margery Kempe, Jane Anger etc. Owing to the fact, a majority of writers in the literary canon have been observed to be males. In addition, the major works written by such highly esteemed writers directly or indirectly reveals patriarchy. Thus, it is the responsibility of the feminist critic to extract these patriarchal exhibitions and critically analyze it.

2. PATRIARCHY IN PROTOFEMINIST LITERATURE One of the underlined methods of annihilating patriarchy by the feminist critic is by bringing to limelight and critically analyzing the manifestations of patriarchy in works considered to be classic. Feminist critics Simone de Beauvoir, Kate Millet and Elaine Showalter have contributed largely to the achievement of this goal by exemplarily using the method. Their works are considered to have laid the foundation for the most prevalent approach in this method called the “images of women” approach. This section contributes to the achievement of the goal by critically analyzing some major works not highlighted by Millet and Beauvoir, and providing further criticism of the texts they considered. 2.1. THOMAS WYATT’S ‘WHOSO LIST TO HUNT’

Whoso list to hunt, I know where is an hind, But as for me, alas, I may no more. 3

The vain travail hath wearied me so sore I am of them that farthest cometh behind. Yet may I, by no means, my wearied mind Draw from the deer, but as she fleeth afore, Fainting I follow. I leave off therefore, Since in a net I seek to hold the wind. Who list her hunt, I put him out of doubt, As well as I, may spend his time in vain. And graven with diamonds in letters plain There is written, her fair neck round about, ‘Noli me tangere, for Caesar’s I am, And wild for to hold, though I seem tame.

The poem is considered one of the classics of the English sonnets. In fact, Thomas Wyatt is referred to as the “originator of the English sonnet.” In the above poem, Wyatt openly declares his futility to love and be loved by Anne Boleyn. Nevertheless, the poem is stereotypical in the sense that it manifests subtly the traits of patriarchy. Before studying the poem in-depth, a critical analysis of the surface reveals that the poem is more of a communication between a speaker and his targeted audience. The speaker, Thomas Wyatt, addresses the poem to the addressees, the men. In essence, the title of the poem is “[To] Whoso List to Hunt.” It is therefore logical to assume to that the poet excludes the feminine gender in his address. How then should the female gender read the poem? Another assumption that can be drawn from the title is the assumption that the poem reveals the societal situation of women in the sixteenth century as dormant, uneducated, unsophisticated, and inactive. History reveals that in the sixteenth century, only

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few women were educated and well versed in Latin, Greek and French, the languages of the sixteenth century. Thomas Wyatt twice indicates the addresses (line 1 and 10) as an emphasis that the audience is restricted to a particular gender. In addition, Wyatt symbolizes the addresses as the hunter and Anne Boleyn as the hunted. Andrew Bennett and Nicholas Royle (2004) agree with the claim that Wyatt represents men and women in a “gender-stereotypical way” which include “man as the subject, active, full or travail;” women, on the other hand as “object,” and inactive. Therefore, men are given the higher status whereas women are given the lower status. Wyatt symbolically referred to Anne Boleyn as an outstanding “hind,” a female deer that should be hunted. The use of an animal to represent a woman further contributes to the belittling of the feminine gender. It would have been considered fair and appropriate if the hunter was another animal, maybe a lion (it could as well be the deer itself), in pursuit of the hind. On the contrary, the comparison is between a human and an animal. Furthermore, Wyatt’s poem reveals the ‘hind’ as branded.

And graven with diamonds in letters plain There is written, her fair neck round about, ‘Noli me tangere, for Caesar’s I am

There is a written sign round the neck of the hind to put off any other suitor. In essence the suitor, ‘Ceasar,’ has enslaved the hind with ‘diamonds’ to exhibit his 5

ownership, affluence and nobility. Therefore, not only did Wyatt subordinate women under men, he also portrays women as a property of man, dependent on man and disallowed to make personal choices and decisions. The last world of the poem describes a characteristic of women in the Sixteenth century, ‘tame[d].’ A synonym of the word tame is ‘domesticated.’ A dictionary even defined the word as an adjective used to describe “a person who is willing to do what other people ask, even if it is slightly [against her wish].” Therefore, Anne Boleyn is the ‘tame[d]’ hind. Generally, according to Wyatt, women are therefore supposed to be tamed by men.

A perfect example of this patriarchal domination and taming of the women by men is captured in Margaret Cavendish’s Philosophical and Physical Opinions (1655):

we are kept like birds in cages to hop up and down in our houses, not suffered to fly abroad . . . we are shut out of all power and authority, by reason we are never employed either in civil or martial affairs, our counsels are despised and laughed at, the best of our actions are trodden down with scorn, by the overweening conceit men have of themselves and through despisement of us. (qtd. in Margaret Walters 2005: 21)

2.2.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE’S MERCHANT OF VENICE

In terms of choice I am not sole led By nice direction of a maiden’s eyes: Besides, the lottery of my destiny 6

Bars me the right of voluntary choosing; But, if my father had not scanted me, And hedg’d me by his wit to yield myself His wife who wins me by that means I told you…. (II.i.13-19)

The Merchant of Venice was written during the late sixteenth century. The Norton Anthology of English Literature remarks that the play is one of Shakespeare’s achievements which are “unprecendented succession of romantic comedies… whose poetic richness and emotional complexity remain unmatched.” The play reveals the sixteenth century patriarchal society that subjugates women under men. The above quotation is Portia’s speech addressed to the Prince of Morocco. She expresses her desire to have a personal rather than imposed choice on whom to be married to. However, before his death, Portia’s father willed his property to any suitor of the daughter who chooses among the three caskets, the casket which contains a picture of Portia. Thus, both Portia and her father’s wealth would belong to the man; this provokes her to label it as “the lottery of [her] destiny.” Essentially, this act of the late father posits two points. First, as was the popular tradition in the sixteenth century, a woman should be totally submissive to the man, father or husband, in all arrangements whether pleasing to her or not. Therefore, she does not have any right to speak for herself, much less opines what she wants. Secondly, the act pinpoints a common feature of a patriarchal society; it is petrilineal. Therefore, women are usually not allowed to inherit property; they themselves are properties. In the absence of a male child, the husband of the eldest female child inherits the property. Unfortunately, this patriarchal feature has been in existence since the beginning of patriarchy down to this day. Similar practices 7

still exist especially in the African and Asian communities. However, a rapid decrease of such acts has been observed in these areas. In her 1980 book, Women Oppression Today: Problems in Marxist Feminist, Michele Barret distinguishes patriarchy as the “domination of women by men” from patriarchy as “a specific form of male domination in which father have power over women and younger men.” Apparently, the act made by Portia’s late father can be viewed from both types of patriarchy. The aspect of male domination is revealed through the subjective role given to the suitors. Whoever chooses the right casket automatically becomes Portia’s husband. It will be right be assume that Portia’s life would have been utterly miserable and helpless if the right casket was chosen by the Prince of Morocco or the Prince of Arragon. It further presents the gender-stereotypical roles of men as subjective and active while women as objective and inactive. Rather than choosing whom to marry and share her father’s inheritance with, she can neither select the suitors who would select among the three caskets nor can she give a hint of the right casket to her favorite suitor, as in the case of Bassanio. Another manifestation of patriarchy in the play is found during the court scene in act four, scene one. Some professions, such as lawyers and doctors, were strictly for the masculine gender. If women were prevented from minor things such as going to school and writing, how much more specializing in such distinguished professions. The patriarchal society of the sixteenth century forbade women from anticipating such professions which would increase their position and status in the society. Although Shakespeare’s female characters in the play cleverly and boldly rejected the pervasive social norms and upheld theirs, their bold steps did not

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change the situation in the society. The acts were culturally subversive and radical but the system of patriarchy remained unshakeable. Some scholars have traced the origin of patriarchy to such “social and family structures” found in the works of Western scholars. Nevertheless, these acts of patriarchy undoubtedly still exist and are being passed down from one generation to another.

2.3.

THOMAS HARDY’S MAYOR OF CASTERBRIDGE Hardy’s works gain attention from every form of criticism. Feminist

criticism is no exception. An outstanding feminist critic who has successfully described “The Unmanning of Mayor of Casterbridge” is Elaine Showalter. The novel is a classic written in the Victorian era. In The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886), the first act that negotiates the feminist critic attention is Henchard’s auction of his wife and baby daughter, Susan and Elizatbeth-Jane respectively. At 21, while travelling with his wife and baby daughter in search of employment as a hay-trusser, Henchard stops to eat. In what seemed like a joke when he was drunk, he sells his wife and baby daughter to a sailor, Newson, for five guineas. The above act is an outstanding manifestation of Victorian patriarchy. The trend continues from the early patriarchal societies – the “worthlessness of women.” To extrapolate, Susan and her daughter are simply regarded as properties which could be discarded or sold at any given time or place. Feminist critics tend to restrict their focus of this patriarchal action to the auction made while simultaneously neglecting the roles of the setting and the buyer. The sale was made at “the fair of Weydon-Priors.” Undoubtedly, there were others present in the same setting when the sale is made. The fact that no one stops him or attempts to, even though Henchard was drunk is perspicuous evidence that 9

even the society was in fervent support of women subjugation to men. In addition, Newson, the sailor and buyer, purchases Susan and the baby daughter for the five guineas demanded. Thus, Susan becomes a stock that can be exchanged for money. Such acts were not unusual; the narrator points out that “it has been done elsewhere.” These acts also pinpoints the Victorian patriarchal ideology dominant in the Victorian era. In response to the above, Elaine Showalter points out that the novel “begins with a scene that dramatizes the analysis of female subjugation as a function of capitalism: the auction of Micheal Henchard’s wife Susan at the fair at WeydonPriors” (qtd. in Dana Elisabeth). Jung-Sun Choi critically points out that:

In terms of the Victorian patriarchy, the most conspicuous character is Susan because she is a typical victim of the patriarchal ideology. The relationship between Susan and Henchard demonstrates the essence of raltionship between man and wife in the Victorian age. Between them there is a “total absence of conversation.” Her husband is only “her present owner;” she is only “an article” belonging to him. Naturally, marriage is a disaster to her. (57)

By creating a sharp contrast between Michael Henchard and Donald Farfree, Thomas Hardy promotes a particular kind of masculinity which is believed to have contributed to the evolution of the “New Woman.” Another critic agrees that by “portray[ing] masculinity in states of ambivalence,” Thomas Hardy “gives a great deal of insight in the types of men he favors – the chaste male, who is able to abandon his ‘savage male defiance’ for love and sensitivity.”

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The patriarchal domination of women under men – father or husband, has been in existence since time immemorial. Evidence of such pervasive patriarchal acts is manifested in the three texts analyzed. It was revealed that women were mostly viewed as “property” belonging to men. This article also points out how culturally subversive steps taken by female characters as Portia, Jessica, Nerrisa, and Elizabeth-Jane sow the seeds of feminism in their different ways. Other protofeminist texts include: William Shakespeare’s Othello, Nathaniel Hawthorn’s The Scarlet Letter etc. Sadly to say, these acts of patriarchal domination still exist in some societies. Patriarchy, as the subjugation of women by men against their will, is evident in the works of Ola Rotimi’s Our Husband has Gone Mad Again, Buchi Emecheta’s Joys of Motherhood, Alice Walker’s Color Purple, Zulu Sofola’s Old Wives Are Tasty, Ngugi wa Thiongo’s Devil on the Cross and a “thousand” of other texts. A perfect example of Patriarchal domination of the father over female and male children in contemporary literature is Joe De Graft’s Sons and Daughters. The radical and culturally subversive steps taken by few women before the advent of the Feminist Movement can be considered as the “grains of wheat” which were sown. Any political, social, cultural and economical attempt to liberate them of male chauvinism were not only turned down but also ridiculed, abused and viewed as contemptible. Those “grain-of-wheat” efforts implanted have germinated to the Feminist Movement which has in turn led to the development of other feminist concepts and studies: gender studies, sexism, gynocriticism, ideology, reproduction etc.

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WORKS CITED Asiyanbola, A.R. Patriarchy, Male Dominance, the Role and Women Empowerment in Nigeria. A Paper submitted to the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population, 2005. Bazzell, D. J. The Role of Women in The Merchant of Venice: Wives and Daughters Ahead of their Time. A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Theatre Arts, University of Arizona, 2008. Habib, M.A.R. A History of Literary Criticism, from Plato to Present. Malden: 12

Blackwell Publishing, 2005. Bennet, A. and Royle, N. An Introduction to Literature, Criticism and Theory. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2004. Choi, J. The Mayor of Casterbridge: Human Suffering in the Victorian Patriarchy, (unknown). De Beauvoir, S. Le Deuxieme Sexe. Paris: Editions Gallimard, 1949. Gbenoba, F.E. and Okoroegbe F. N. Literary Theory and Criticism. Lagos: National Open University of Nigeria, 2014. Walters, Margaret. Feminism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.

INTERNET Allingham, D.E. “The Social Role and Treatment of Women in Thomas Hardy’s The Mayor of Casterbridge.” Victorianweb.org. 28 June, 2015.

“Changing Forms of Patriarchy, Public and Private Patriarchy.” Blacksacademy.net. 28 June 2015.

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“Michelle Barrett: Capitalism and Women’s Liberation.” Uhaweb.hartford.edu. 28 June 2015.

“Masculine Identity in Hardy’s Novels.” 123HelpMe.com. 28 June 2015

Mackay, F. “The Biggest Threat to Feminism? It’s not Just the Patriarchy.” theguardian.com. 28 June, 2015. >...