PSYC1010 - Chapter 2 - The Research Enterprise in Psychology PDF

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Chapter 2: The Research Enterprise in Psychology Goals of the Scientific Enterprise o Measurement and Description  The phenomenon being studied must be observable by the investigator.  The first goal of psychology is to develop measurement techniques that make describing behaviour clearly and pre...

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Chapter 2: The Research Enterprise in Psychology 

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Goals of the Scientific Enterprise o Measurement and Description  The phenomenon being studied must be observable by the investigator.  The first goal of psychology is to develop measurement techniques that make describing behaviour clearly and precisely possible. o Understanding and Prediction  Events are considered understood when the reasons for their occurrences can be explained.  A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.  Variables are any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, etc. that are controlled or observed in a study. o Application and Control  Once a phenomenon is understood, it can be applied and controlled more easily and efficiently. o Theories  A theory is a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations.  A scientific theory o Must be testable o Must be replicable o Must be peer reviewed Steps in a Scientific Investigation o Step 1: Formulate a Testable Hypothesis  The first step of a scientific investigation is to translate a theory into a testable hypothesis.  An operational definition describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure and control a variable. o Step 2: Select the Research Method and Design the Study  The research method chosen depends on the topic of study. Each method has its pros and cons and each method is better suited to study a different kind of topic.  Once a method is chosen detailed plans must be made for executing the study.  Participants are the persons or animals whose behaviour is systematically observed in a psychological study.  Research methods include experiments, case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation to name a few.

Step 3: Collect the Data  Data collection techniques are procedures for making empirical observations and measurements.  Commonly used techniques include  Direct Observation: Observers watch and record behaviours as objectively and precisely as possible.  Questionnaire: Participants are given a series of questions designed to collect information on opinions, attitudes, etc.  Interview: A face-to-face dialogue to obtain information about aspects of a subject’s behaviour.  Psychological Test: Participants are administered a standardized measured to obtain a sample of their behaviour. Usually used to assess mental abilities or personality traits.  Physiological/Neural Recording: An instrument is used to monitor and record physiological processes such as heart rate, blood pressure, etc.  Examination of Archival Records: The researcher examines institutional records such as census, economic, medical, etc. o Step 4: Analyze the Data and Draw Conclusions  The observations made in a study are converted to numbers which make up the raw data.  The raw data is then analyzed with the use of statistics to decide whether the hypothesis has been supported. o Step 5: Report the Findings  The publication of research allows other experts to evaluate research findings and replicate studies.  A journal is a periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material in a narrowly defined area of inquiry. Advantages of the Scientific Approach o Clarity and Precision: The scientific approach specifies exactly what is being discussed or examined. o Intolerance of Error: Scientists rigorously test and review each others theories and findings to ensure that the results and conclusions are as accurate as possible. o

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Experimental Research and Looking for Causes  The experiment is a research method where one variable is manipulated under controlled conditions to examine the effects on another variable.  Independent Variable: The manipulated variable, the variable being examined.  Dependent Variable: The variable that is hypothesized to be affected by the independent variable.  Experimental Group: Consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment in reference to the independent variable.  Control Group: Consists of similar subjects who did not receive the special treatment.  Extraneous Variable: Any other variable that is likely to affect the dependent variable.  Confounding of Variables: Occurs when two variables are linked in a way that makes it difficult to distinguish their specific effects. o Variations in Designing Experiments  Sometimes its advantageous to use the same group as both the experimental group and the control group to limit the number of extraneous variables.  Sometimes its also possible to manipulate more than one independent variable or measure more than one dependent variable in a single experiment. This allows the investigator to see whether the two variables interact. o Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research  Advantages  Permits conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships between variables  Allows for isolation and control of variables  Allows for neutralization of extraneous variables  Disadvantages  Artificial environments cause doubts to arise about applicability to everyday behaviour  Not every research question can be explored this way due to ethical or practical concerns. Descriptive/Correlational Research and Looking for Links  Cannot be used to demonstrate cause and effect.  Can be used to describe behavioural patterns and discover links/associations between variables. o Naturalistic Observation  A researcher carefully observes the behavior of a subject without any direct intervention.  Allows the study of behaviour under less artificial conditions.  A major problem is reactivity which occurs when a participant’s behaviour is affected by the presence of an observer.  Another issue is that it is difficult to translate the observations into numerical data and statistical analyses.

Case Studies  A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual or group of individuals.  Particularly well-suited for investigating certain phenomena such as psychological disorders.  Clinical psychologists often do case studies of their clients for diagnostic purposes and are not conducting empirical research.  Case study research involves the analysis of a collection of case studies to look for patterns that may suggest a certain conclusion.  The main problem with this method is that case studies can be highly subjective. o Surveys  In a survey, researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific behavioural aspects that are difficult to directly observe.  Surveys also make it relatively easy to collect data from a large sample size.  The major problem is that surveys involve a large amount of self-reporting which is subjected to various forms of deception and false responses. o Advantages and Disadvantages of Correlational/Descriptive Research  Descriptive research broadens the scope of phenomena that psychologists are able to study.  At the same time, this kind of research cannot conclusively demonstrate conclusively that correlated variables are causally related. Statistics and Research and Looking for Conclusions o Statistics  The use of mathematics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data. o Descriptive Statistics  Used to organize and summarize data o Central Tendency  The median is the score that falls exactly in the centre of a distribution of scores.  The mean is the average of all the scores in a distribution.  The mode is the most frequent score in a distribution. o Variability  Refers to how much the scores in a data set vary from each other and from the mean.  The standard deviation is an index of the amount of variability in a set of data. Standard deviation is proportional to the amount of variability.  The normal distribution is a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which a characteristic is dispersed in a population.  A percentile score indicates the percentage of people who score at or below a particular score. o

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Correlation  A correlation exists when two variables are related to each other.  The correlation coefficient is a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables.  A positive correlation indicates that two variables co-vary in the same direction.  A negative correlation indicates that two variables co-vary in the opposite direction.  As a correlation increases in strength and moves closer to +1 or -1, the ability to predict one variable based on knowledge of the other increases. A correlation of 0 indicates no relationship between the variables.  Correlational does not equal causation. o Inferential Statistics  Used to interpret data and draw conclusions.  Statistical significance is said to exist when the probability that observed findings are due to chance is very low. Evaluating Research and Looking for Flaws  Replication is the repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated. o Sampling Bias  A sample is the collection of participants selected for observation in an empirical study.  The population is the much larger collection of animals or people that the researchers want to generalize about.  Sampling bias exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn. o Placebo Effects  Placebo effects occur when participants’ expectations/beliefs lead them to experience some kind of change even when the treatment they receive is fake or ineffectual. o Distortions in Self-Report Data  The social desirability bias is the tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.  Participants with this bias try to create a favourable impression of themselves and often report data that is untrue.  A response set is a tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the questions.  The halo effect occurs when one’s overall evaluation of a person, object, or institution influences the evaluation of a specific quality or trait of the subject in question. o

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Experimenter Bias  Occurs when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results. Researchers, like other people, sometimes see what they want to see and not what is actually the truth.  The double-blind procedure is one way of fixing this issue by keeping both the participants and researchers completely unaware of who is in the experimental group or control group. Key Ethical Principles o Respect for the Dignity of Persons o Responsible Caring o Integrity in Relationships o Responsibility to Society o

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