Psych 2020 - Some lecture notes for professor .Amy Baldwin PDF

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Some lecture notes for professor .Amy Baldwin...

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Lecture Notes: 1.2 The Nervous System:

 Nervous system: System in our body that made up of nerve cells:  Receives and transmits information  Takes in external information  Generates information from our internal body  CNS is the brain and spinal cord  Somatic Nervous System makes skeletal muscles work  Automatic Nervous System:  Glands  Organs  Sympathetic Nervous System  Parasympathetic Nervous System  Danger  Heart rate  Dilate lungs  Stops reproduction cells 1.3 Animal Brain

 Whales, elephants, and dolphins have larger brains than humans.  Wrinkles are called sulci and gyri  Human and animals are alike but animals are more specialized to help them adapt  Men have larger brain  Men and women have the same amount of surface are due to deep wrinkes (sulci)  Sexes have nearly the same amount of neurons 1.4 What makes human brain so special

 16 billion neurons in the cerebral cortex  Primates will have more neurons than rodents 1.5 Terminology

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Dorsal: Toward the back ; away from the stomach side Ventral: Toward the stomach ; away from dorsal (back) side Anterior: Toward the front end Posterior: toward the rear end Lateral: Toward the side away from the midline

 Proximal: Located close (approximate) to the point of origin / attachment  Distal: Located more distant from the point of origin / attachment  Ipsilateral: On the same side of the body (2 parts on the left / 2 parts on the right)  Contralateral: On the opposite side of the body ( 1 on the left / 1 on the right)  Contralateral Plane: Plane that sows brain structures as seen from the front  Sagittal Plane: Plane that shows brain structures as seen the side  Horizontal plane: Plane that shows brain structures as seen from above  Lamina: Row or layer of cell bodies separated from other cell bodies by a layer of axons and dendrites  Column: Set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, with similar properties  Tract: Set of axons within the CNS aka as projection.  Nerve: A set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from a sensory organ to the CNS  Nucleus: Cluster of neuron cell bodies within the cns  Ganglion: Cluster of neurons cell bodies, usually outside the CNS.  Gyrus: A protuberance on the surface of the brain  Sulcus: A fold or groove that separates one gyrus from another  Fissure: Long deep sulcus 1.6Medulla and Pons:  Brain is made up of the medulla, pons, cerebellum  Reticular formation runs through it  Medulla ; controls vital reflexes  Heart rate  Breathing  Vomiting - when you eat something toxic  Pons:  Bunch of nuclei  Play different roles in sleep  Fibers cross from left to right (bridge) 1.7 Cerebellum:  Balance  Coordination  Alcohol goes to the frontal lobe  Frontal lobe id our sense of time / sense of judgment / sense of reality

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 Alcohol and patients with parkasians have damage the cerebellum so that they can’t balance with their feet closer together / difficult to life theor feet up. Major role in learning  Automatic process Implicit / Explicit Average 6 people a day die of alcohol poisoning each day in the US 76% of alcohol poisoning deaths are among adults ages 35 – 64 76% of those who die from alcohol poisoning are men

1.9 Reticular Formation  Network of fibers that is responsible for attention and arousal  Double dutch requires spatial awareness  Runs through the hindbrain up through the midbrain  Regulates your attention arousal and wakefulness  Whatever you think about reticular formation looks for it  We don’t see things as they we see things as we are. 1.10 Midbrain:  Tectum is the rook of the midbrain  Tenmentum is the floor of the midbrain  Substantial nigra which involved in movement  Ventral tegmental gray major area where we dopamine receptors  Stary of addiction area feeds information into the nucleus accumbens  Role of directing behavior  Inferior Colliculi: auditory orienting reflexes  Superior Colliculi: visual reflexes  Difference btw sheep and human Inferior Colliculi and Superior Colliculi is because sheep are prey and humans are predators  Sheep rely more on the colliculi  Pineal Gland:  Descartes thought the seed of the soul was in the pineal gland.  Control sleep, wake cycles, circadian rhythm, releases melatonin  Melatonin – regulates sleep cycle works with body temperature in response to light levels  Stop of melatonin raises your body temperature  DMT: hallucinogen ; known as a spirit molecule 1.11 Thalamus and Olfactory bulbs:  Thalamus:

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 Information from the reticular formations is sent to the thalamus  Thalamus sends it to different parts of the brain  Directs all incoming sensory information  Does not control smell Hypothalamus:  Hunger  Body temperature  Biological clock  Controls pituitary gland  Few areas different in men and women  Biological differences  Around 4 females hypothalamus start to prune away to become smaller  Thirst  Plays a role in sexuality  Controls autonomic nervous system  Whether it’s a sympathetic / parasympathetic response Pituitary gland:  Hypothalamus sends messanges directly to the pituitary gland  Controller the release of hormones  Regulates many different endocrine system glands  Regulates growth  Regulates menstrual period  Regulates pregnancy  Hormone cycles for both men and women  Regulates stress response Limbic system  Emotional behavior Amygdala:  Get information ahead and so they’ll make snap judgement  Emotional center of the brain  Love connection stored in the brain  Almond shaped  Nuclei inside for bonding  Womens amygdala – oxytocin receptors  (bonding / trust hormone)  Release in times of stress  Helpful hormone  Cuddle hormone  Birth contractions are caused by release of oxytocin.  Platocytocin synthetic form of oxytocin

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 Men have twice as more oxytocin receptors  Get release by touch  Sex activates the amygdala  Thin line between love and hate bc rage is in their  Epileptic focus  Clusters of cells  Shits down your frontal lobe  Survival mode  Believed were intuition is. Hippocampus:  Major role in memory  Develop around 4 Basal Ganglia:  Movement patterns  Heavily connected to the cerebellum  Unconscious movement (patterns)  Caudate nucleus  OCD  Putamen  Thalamus  Globus Pallidus  Parenkians disease Olfactory Bulbs:  Smell information directly to limbic system  Pheromones ;menstruating  Smell directly to the limbic system (emotional system) Optic Chiasm Frontal Lob:  Executive of the brain  Self control  Seat of Personality  Regulate limbiac system  Responsible for socially accepted behaviors  Contains primary motor cortexx  Puppet master that controls the rest of your brain  Mediating strengthens  Criminal minds:  Abnormalities in the brain structure and function could turn people to crime

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 Antiriot Cingulate: criminals with low activity have higher risk of reoffending \  Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex: up to 100% smaller and less active in habitual offenders  Amygdala: shrunken and less active in teenagers with aggressive conduct disorders  Frontal labatomy: goes through eye socket  Trephination – drill holes in skulls  Walter Freeman Parietal Lobe:  Touch sensation  Phantom limb syndrome – neurons are still there attached  Contains the primary somatosensory cortex  Responsible for bodily feelings such as temperature, pressure, pain, etc. Central Sulcus Precentral Gyrus Postcentral Gyrus Occipital Lobe  Primary visual cortex  Information process is being processed from the eyes Temporal Lobe:  Contains the primary auditory lobe Ventricles:  Cavities in the brain that make cerebrospinal fluid  Reservoir of hormones  Cushions the brain  Allows the brain to float – relieving some f the burden of its weight  Acts as a storage or reservoir for hormones  Choroid plexus – network of capillaries that are in the lateral ventricle  Make cerebral spinal fluid  Gets absorbed by the blood Cranial Nerves Optic Nerves

1.12 Chemistry Attraction:  Personal smells of essence of us is our immunity peptides 1.20 – Brain Research Method  Ct and MRi allowed physicians to look at the brain in a non-invasive fashion

 Examine brain structure and activity  EGG  Measures brain waves / electrical activity  Molecular signals ; how they are being transmitted  Continuous recording of electrical brain activity  Recording –  Nuerins have axons that receive transmitters  Dendrties that receive them  What EGG is recording  LFP- Local field potential (group of neurons)  EGG cap – amplifies brain signals  EOG(elctroculogram) –  Measure eye muscle movement  Wavelengths:  Gamma  Beta  Alpha  Theta  ERP- event related potientals  Baseline – time period before stimulus  Record brain activity in the order of mil a seconds  Safe just records activity  Poor special resolutions  CT  X-rays to make 3D image  Soft tissue / bone tissue  Radiation  Various image around the brain  PET  Radioactive glucose to see functioning in the brain  Where is it and where its happening most  3D images ; radioactive tracers  FDG- midified form a glucose (cancer)  MRI:  Magnets/radio waves to see structure of the soft tissue  Based on NMR (nuclear Magnetic Resonance)  fMRI:  measures blood flow in the brain  what brain areas do  blood – winding blood vessls allowing oxygen to the blood

 water/spin - send radio waves at the same time  magenetic field distubence- cause water molecules to di-synchronize faster  how long signal stay

Chapter 2: Nervous Cells and Nerve Impulses 2.2 Nervous System Cells  The nervous system is made up of 2 type of cells  Neurons – receive and transmit information  Glial Cells – support the neurons (mother cell)  Remove the waste  Guide neurons where to go  Astrocytes take up empty spaces  Cells that feed and nourish neurons  10x many glial cells than neurons (1/10 in size)  Same amount of space  Believed glial cells would glue neurons together  Cancer .. occur in the glial cells  Abnormal activity  Make up the myelin sheath (guide growth)  Swan cells  Radial Gilia – direct embryonic development  Guide growth  3 parts of the neurons Dendrite: carries information toward the cell  Life force / maintenance of the cell  Cell Body: maintains the cell  Axon: carries information away from the cell 2.3 – Types of Neurons: 3 Types of Neurons:  Sensory (Afferent) Neurons: takes in information from the senses  PNS  Interneuron: communicates in between neurons  CNS

 Motor Neurons: carries information to the muscles  PNS  Reflex Arc:  Senses take them in and go to interneuron and then to moto neuron (Simultaneously)  Spinal cord is taking care of patellar reflex  Hot metal- activates pain receptors and sends messages to sensory nerve  Routed to an intermedeiate neuron then to motor neuron then straight back to the arm msucles.  Connections between nerves are called synapses 2.4 Blood Brain Barrier  Network of capillaries and tightly packed endothelial cells that protect the brain  Protects brain you don’t want to allow immune system cells  Tightly packed anthelia cells (won’t allow anything to come through)  Immune system cells look for damaged cells  Reason why you cant replace a neurons is because dendrites and axons  Primary source of nutrition for neurons is glucose  Active Transport: protein mediated process by which useful chemicals are brought into the brain  Glial cells help nourish neurons by being involved in active trasnport  Glucose, hormones, amino acids, and vitamins are brought into the brian via active transport.  Glucose is a simple sugar that is the primary source of nutrition for neurons  Thiamine is a chemical that is necessary for use of glucose  B vitamins  Korsakoff syndrome found in alcoholics 2.5 School of Psychology:  Biological: behaviors determined by our genes and hormones  Behaviorism: behavior is determined by learning and the environment  Behavior is determined by our choices  Environments` we put ourself in  Cognitive: behavior is determined by our thought process  Humanistic: behavior is determined by our choice  Psychoanalytic: behavior is determined by our unconscious process  Freud our behavior is determined by our unconscious process  All school of phycology can be validated by how the brain and dendrites work. 2.6 The most important lesson from 83,000 brain scans

 SPECT – nuclear medicine study that looks at blood flow and activity  Looks at how the brain works  Tells: good activity, too little, or too much. 2.7 Crash course presentation of action potential: 2.8 Intro to action potential:  Root of life  Every thought is an action potential  Thoughts  Movements  All neurons consist of cell body and axons/dendrites  Dendrites receive signals and carry them to the cell body  Axons carry the signals away from the cell body  Nervous system carries signals though the body in the forms of nerve impulses  Nerve impulse is a wave chemical and electrical change that moves along the membrane of the nerve cell  Membrane is in its resting state in - inner surface the nerve cell ; membrane has a more negative charge and the outer surface has a positive charge  Resting Potential: difference between charges across the membrane  Na+ is produced  Positively charged ions reverses the charge difference across the membrane  Causes channels in the neighboring region to open siodiun ions flow and t the charge  Other membrane channels open and allow potassium ions K+ to flow out of the cell  Restores the membrane to its resting potential  Action potential: Reversal of charge followed by restoration of theresing state is called  Nerve impulse action potential  Resting potential – polarization  More K on the inside  More Na on the outside  K and Na both positive charge  Semi-permeable membrane – like a sponge  when a neuron is at rest in a state of polarization it carries a charge of negative 70 millivolts  action potential is the movements of these ions  When a neuron is at rest the K is trapped on the inside  Balance out the negativity of the protein ions that are trapped inside

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 When neurons is at rest there is more K on the inside Na sodium is masked on the outside Semipermeable membtanse is more permeable to potassium  Red ones sodium  Pink one potassium Unstimulated neurons maintain a constant electrical/potential difference across their cell membrane Resting potential is always negative inside the cell  Ranges from negative 40 to negative 90 millivolts Is a neuron is stimulated the negative potential inside the neuron can be made either more/less negative  Depending on stimulus tip  Made sufficiently less negative it reaches a level called threshold and an action potential is triggered  Neurons become 20-50 millivolts positive Membrane of a neuron encloses cytoplasm with various ions  Neuron immered in a salt solution  Ions of neurons consist of postitively charged potassium  Negavte charged organic molecules (protients)  Outside the cell  Positive charge sodium ions and negavtive charged chloride ions  Charged particles must travel though channel protiens that ectend through the membrane  In an unstimulated neuron  Only potassium ions can travel through potassium hannels  Potassium are more concentrated inside the cell  Diffuse out the cell leaving negative charged organic ions  Positive charge ions leave the cell becomes negative  Electrical force tends to pull them back inside  Concentration difference is balanced  Point when neirons reach resting potential  1/10 of the potassium ion ust leave  To create a resting potential of -60 millivolts Acting potential carry information through a nervous system

The Forces:  Concentration Gradient- ions tend to flow from higher concentration to lower concentrations  Electrical Gradient: opposite attract

Depolarization:  When the inside of the cell becomes more positive  Anything less negative  Sodium enters the cell Sodium Potassium Pump  Protein molecule located on the inside of the cell that attempts to maintain the resting potential of the cell  It pumps sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell.  Equalizer of cell  Will K into cell  Pump Na out of cell  Balance of cell  Animal cells strore energy in the form if ion gradient  In the cytosol the sodium ion concetration is kept low  Potassium ion concentration in cytosol is kept high  Harbers potential energy that the cell taps to fuel cellular work  Animlas cells use the sousium potassium pumo to amintian these ion gradient  Enter binding sites on the cytosolic side of the pump  Pumping sodium with its concentration enrgy requires energy which is provided by cleaving ATP  ATp transfers phosphate group to the pump in a high energy linkage  Phosphorylation causes a dramtic change in the pumps conformation  Sodium ion become exposed and released outside the cell  Also exposes binding sites for potassium ions  Triggers release of the phosphate group ; return pump to orginal…  Potassium is relased insde the cell  Complete cycle takes 10 millisecods

2.10 Threshold Voltage activated Gates  Gates located along the cell membrane that are opened or closed according to voltage readings  Constantly monitoring the voltage Threshold  -55 sodium gates open wide  Sodium rushes in once the gates open  Inside of the cell becomes ; necomes negative to positive ; reverses in polarity  Sodium rushes in – action potential occurs Action Potential:  When the inside of the cell goes from negative to positive  This is what releases the neurotransmitter  Receive  Conduct  Transmit signals  Requires signal to reamplified  Volage – gate sodium channels which undergo a cycle  Choreographed conformational changes  When an action potential passes sodium channels open in response to membrane depolarization  Sodium ion rush into the axon futher depolarizing its membrane 2.11 Refractory PeriodTop of the Action Potential  Na gates close  K gates open

All or None Law  The size of the action potential is independent of the stimulus that initiated it  If a stimulus can depolarize the to -55 (-15 mv more positive than resting) – it will have th action potential  Gun analogy – toilet analogy Absolute Refractory Period  Time period after the top of the action potential when a neuron cannot have another action potential Relative Refractory Period:  Time period after the absolute refractory period when a neuron can have an action potential but it will take a stronger stimulus  More negative Hyperpolarization:  When the inside of the cell becomes more negative  K leaves the cell Saltatory Conduction  Saltatory conduction refers to the conduction of a nerve impulse along a myelinated axon  Its much faster Nodes of Ranvier  Charge can leap between the Nodes of ranvier rather than being regenerated at each point of the axon  Nodes of Ranvier- unmyelinated sections of an axon where the voltage activated gates are located

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Properties of synapses: Reflex Arc: circuit from sensory neuron to muscle response Sherrington studied reflexes, automatic responses to stimuli Spinal cord controlled the flexion and extension reflexes Sherrington suggested special process at the junction between neurons:  Reflexes are slower than conduction along an axon  Several weak stimuli presented at nearby places or times produce a stronger reflex than one stimulus alone does.  When one set of muscles becomes excited a different set becomes relaxed

Speed of a Reflex and Delayed transmission at the synapse  Total distance that the impulse traveled from skin receptor to spinal cord to muscle is never more than 15 m/s  Some sensory / motor nerves are about 40 m/s  Sherrington believes it occurs when one neuron communicates with another  Sh...