Psychology 1000 - Chapter 1 The Science of Behaviour PDF

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Psychology 1000 - Chapter 1: The Science of Behaviour Pioneers of Psychology Renee Descartes ● Philospher and mathmetician ● Dualism - body works like a machine ○ Separate body and mind channels ● Reflex arc ○ Sensations are transmitted from peripheral sense through to central mechanisms in the brain and reflected back (do something about it) ○ Reflexes from transmissions Gustav Fechner ● Physicist and Mathematician ● Sensations can be measured ● Father of psychophysics - measure physical sensations Willhelm Wundt ● Founder of modern psychology ● First lab in Leipzig, Germany ● Structuralism - possible to come down to the basic elements of sense William James ● Psychologist at Harvard ● Disputed Wundt’s claim of first lab ● Published first Psychology textbook - influence on cognition and learning ● Helped women in psych Mary Calkins ● Trained by James ● First woman “allowed” to study at Harvard medical school (denied a degree) ● First woman president of APA Sigmund Freud ● Medical doctor ● Believed that physical disorders could have a psychological base ● Father of psychoanalysis ● The Unconsciousness - things that we don’t fully know Carl Jung ● Studied under Freud ● Broke ranks with Freud over disagreements re: the sexual nature of personality

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Collective Unconsciousness - there is a theme of a collective mind within society

Carl Rogers ● Humanist approach ● The “self” and unconditional positive regard ● Develops Rogerian Therapy ● Believes that “clients” (not patients) strive for positive goals Ivan Pavlov ● Nobel Prize for work on salivation ● Discovers that associations drive learning ● Classical Conditioning B.F Skinner ● Behaviourist ● Operant Conditioning ● Important association is stimulus and response ● Learning controlled by consequences Jean Piaget ● Studied under Binet (IQ) ● Suggests that children do not think like adults ● Stages of Cognitive Development Karl Lashley ● Biology of learning and memory ● Searched for the “engram” single location for memory ● Came to believe that memory is distributed throughout cortex ● Used technique of lesioning - destroying specific brain tissue Wilder Penfield ● Montreal Neurosurgeon ● Examines function of cortex through direct stimulation - generating seizures, memory ● Maps cortical function in humans Wolfgang Kohler ● Gestalt Psychologist ● Studies problem solving in apes ● Learning can occur through insight - through apes, consider context Kurt Levin ● Social Psychologist who followed Gestalt tradition ● Behaviour occurs in context - a field with many forces directed toward an individual

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Mentors many famous psychologists (Festinger, Deutsch, Barker)

The Nature of Psychology ● Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and the mind - founded by Wundt and James ○ “Behaviour” references to the actions and response that we can directly observe ○ “Mind” refers to internal states and processes, such as thoughts and feelings, that cannot be directly seen and must be inferred ● The primary goals of psychological science is to - describe, explain, predict, and influence behaviour to enhance human welfare ● There are many diverse pathways within psychology ● As a science, psychology has four central goals 1. To describe how people and other animals behave 2. To explain and understand the causes of these behaviours 3. To predict how people and animals will behave under certain conditions 4. To influence or control behaviour through knowledge and control of its causes to enhance human welfare ● Levels of analysis is a framework that simplifies diversity of factors ○ It includes examinations at: ■ The biological level (brain processes, genetic influences) ■ The environmental level (past and present social environments) ■ The psychological level (Thoughts, feelings, motives) ● Basic research = quest for knowledge for its own sake ● Applied research = application of knowledge derived from basic research to solve practical problems ● Structuralism (examines the basic components of consciousness) and functionalism (focused on the purposes of consciousness) = psychology’s two earliest schools of thought Perspectives On Behaviour ● Psychology has roots in varied disciplines such as philosophy, medicine, biological and physical sciences ○ As a result perspectives have become a part of psychology’s intellectual traditions Psychology’s Intellectual Roots ● Is the mind (inner agent of consciousness and thought) a spiritual entity separate from the body, or is it part of the body’s activities? ● Many early philosophers hold a position of “mind-body” dualism ○ The belief that the mind is a spiritual entity not subject to physical laws that govern the body

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Renee Descartes proposed that the mind and body interact through the brain’s tiny pineal gland Another view knows as “monism” holds that mind and body are one and that the mind is not a separate spiritual entity ○ Helped set the stage to psychology - implies that the mind could be studied by measuring physical processes within the brain Mid 1880s - Darwin’s theory of evolution - generated societal shock waves since it contradicted beliefs that the mind is not a spiritual entity but rather product of biological continuity between humans and other species Structuralism (explains, straight forward) vs functionalism (why)

The Psychodynamic Perspective ● Unconscious motives, conflicts, and defense mechanisms that influence personality and behaviour ● Searches for the causes of behaviour within the inner workings of our personality (unique pattern of traits, emotions, motives) ● Sigmund Freud developed the first and most influential psychodynamic theory ○ Emphasized unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses and early childhood experiences that shape personality ○ Treated his patients using “free association” - patient expresses any thoughts that come to mind ○ Patients described traumatic events (often sexual) - after relieving these experiences, their symptoms were often improved ○ From this developed a form of psychotherapy called psychoanalysis ■ The analysis of internal and primarily unconscious psychological forces ■ Leads to anxiety, repression and a conflict of forces which are dynamic in nature - hence, psychodynamic ● Today: theories continue to explore how conscious/unconscious aspects of personality can affect behaviour Behavioural Perspective - Power of Environment ● Roots in 18th century British Empiricism ● Focuses on role of external environments that can govern actions ○ Determined by habits from previous and current life experiences ● Ivan Pavlov - dogs and food ● Watson and Skinner believed that psychology should study only observable stimuli and responses, not unobservable mental processes ○ Argued that the key to changing behaviour is modifying the environment ○ Discovered basic laws of learning through controlled research with lab animals and applied these principles to enhance human welfare ● Behaviourism - emphasizes environmental control of behaviour through learning (John B. Watson)

Cognitive Behaviorism ● Learning experiences and the environment affect our behaviour by giving us the information we need to behave effectively Humanistic Perspective ● Reject the notion that people are controlled by unconscious forces or merely react to environmental stimuli ● Emphasizes free will, personal growth, and the attempt to find meaning in one’s existence ● Rejects psychodynamic concepts of humans being controlled by “unconscious forces” ● Focuses more towards self actualization ● Emphasizes the importance of personal choice, responsibility, personality growth, positive feelings of self-worth ● The meaning of our existence is found within our own hands Cognitive Perspective ● Examines the nature of the mind and how mental processes influence behaviour ● Humans are information processors whose actions are governed by thought, who think, judge, and solve problems ● Cognitive psychology focuses on the study of mental processes - embodies cognitive perspective ● Cognitive psychologists study the processes by which people reason, decision making, solve problems, and understand language ● Lies in the early schools of structuralism, functionalism, and Gestalt psychology ● Piaget’s work on cognitive development, the study of linguistics, and the advent of computers sparked new interest in mental processes ○ Cognitive neuroscience studies brain processes that underlie mental activity Sociocultural Perspective ● Examines how the social environment and cultural learning influence our behaviour, thoughts, and feelings ● Cultural psychologists study how culture is transmitted to its members and examine similarities and differences among people from various cultures ● Pays attention to how the environment influences our behaviour, but its emphasis is narrowed to social life ● Examines social cognition ● Has a cultural component - values, traditions, behaviours shared within a large group of people and is passed down from generation to generation. Each develops their own norms ○ An orientation toward individualism versus collectivism represents one of many ways in which cultures vary ● Culture is transmitted to new members and internalized by them

Biological Perspective ● Examines how brain processes and other bodily functions regulate behaviour ● Neurotransmitters, PET scans measure brain activity - cognitive neuroscience ○ Gives insights on how the human brain works and its relationship to behaviour ●

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Natural Selection - as environment changes, the adaptiveness of a trait may increase or decrease ○ Through natural selection, a species biology evolves in response to environmental conditions Physiological psychologists study brain processes and other physiological functions that underlie our behaviour, sensory experiences, emotions and thoughts Behaviour geneticists study how behaviour is influenced by our genetic inheritance Evolutionary psychologists examine behaviour in terms of its adaptive functions and seek to explain how evolution has biologically predisposed modern humans toward certain ways of behaving

Evolutionary psychology explains how evolution shaped modern human behaviour ○ Certain psychological abilities - thought, language, learning/solving problems, have become more important to survival as our ancestors have to adopt to new ways of living ○ Attraction to physical features may also be features of evolutionary psychology (ex. Facial symmetry) ○ Within any generation, genetically based variations in brain structure and functioning occur among individuals ■ Ancestors whose brain characteristics better supported adaptive mental abilities were more likely to survive and reproduce ■ Through natural selection, adaptations to new environmental demands contributed to the development of the brain, just as brain growth contributed to further development of human behaviour ○ Evolutionary psychologists also attempt to explain human social behaviour ■ The notion that evolutionary pressure have stimulated the development of brain mechanisms that allow us to learn, think, reason, and socialize ○ Sociobiology is a controversial evolutionary theory that has to do with evolutionary psychology ■ Complex social behaviours are also built into the human species as products of evolution ■ Argues that natural selection favours behaviours that increase the ability to pass on one’s genes to the next generation (ex. Aggression, dominance, nurturing tendencies) - sex diferences in reproduction are significant ■ Genetic survival (transmission of genes) is more important than one’s own physical survival

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Certain believe sociobiology overemphasizes innate biological factors at the expense of cultural and social learning factors in explaining complex human social behaviour Those with more cultural orientation suggest that the evolved brain structures that underlie psychological mechanisms (ex. language) developed to enhance adaptation to the demands of social and group living rather than simply to further the survival of one’

Behaviour Genetics ● The study of how behavioural tendencies are influenced by genetic factors ● Ex. selective animal breeding based on physical traits, and behavioural traits (aggression) Comparison of the Six Major Perspectives on Human Behaviour Psychodynami c

Behavioural

Humanistic

Cognitive

Sociocultur al

Biological

Conception of human nature

The human as controlled by inner forces and conflicts

The human as reactor to the environment

The human as free-agent, seeking self actualization

The human as thinker

The human as social being embedded in a culture

The human as animal

Major causal factors in behaviour

Unconscious motives, conflicts, and defences; early childhood experiences and unresolved conflicts

Past learning experiences and the stimuli and behavioural consequenc es that exist in the current environment

Free will, choice and innate drive toward self-actualizati on; search for personal meaning of existence

Thoughts, anticipations , planning, perceptions, attention, and memory processes

Study of behaviour and mental processes of people in different cultures; experiments examining people's responses to social stimuli

Genetic and evolutionary factors; brain and biochemical processes

Predominant focus and methods of discovery

Intensive observations of personality processes in clinical settings; some laboratory research

Study of learning processes in laboratory and real-world settings, with an emphasis

Study of meaning, values, and purpose in life; study of self-concept and its role in thought,

Study of cognitive processes, usually highly controlled laboratory conditions

Study of behaviour and mental processes of people in different cultures; experiments

Study of brain-behavio ur relations; role of hormones and biochemical factors in behaviour;

on precise observation of stimuli and responses

emotion, and behaviour

examining people’s responses to social stimuli

behavioural genetics research

A Review of The Perspectives ● Several perspectives have shaped Psychology scientific growth. Each perspective views human nature differently and focuses on different causes of behaviour ● Psychology's intellectual roots lie and philosophy, biology, and medicine ○ In the late 1800s, Wundt and James helped found psychology Using Levels of Analysis To Integrate The Perspectives ● Behaviour can be studied biologically, psychologically, and environmentally Biological level: we can study behaviour and its causes in terms of brain functioning, hormones, and genetic factors shaped over the course of evolution Psychological level: cognitive perspective, analyzing thought, memory and influence behaviour ● Psychodynamic and humanistic perspectives, examine how motives and personality traits influence behaviour - motives and personality traits Environmental level: behavioural and sociocultural perspectives - physical and social environments can shape our thoughts, feelings and behaviours ● A full understanding of behaviour often moves us back and forth between each level ● Ex. Depression ○ Biological level: genetic factors, biochemical factors, sleep/wake rhythms in the brain, chemical neurotransmitters, ○ Psychological level: particular thinking style, self blame, loss/rejection, low-self esteem ○ Environment level: vicious cycle which decreases from pursuing pleasures, less likeable from seeking approval, physical environment (seasonal), sociocultural ● ●

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Psychology is empirical - it favours direct observation over pure intuition or reasoning as a means of attaining knowledge about behaviour Psychologists recognize that our experience of the world is subjective and that we respond to a psychological reality created by our own thought processes, motives, and expectations - operate beyond our conscious awareness Nature and nurture not only combine to shape our behaviour, but also influence each other Behaviour is a means of adapting to environmental demands, and psychological capacities have evolved during species’ history because they facilitate adaptation and survival

Psychology Today

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Psychologists specialize in numerous subfields and work in many settings, including teaching, research, clinical work, and application of psychological principles to solve personal and social problems Psychologists today conduct research and provide services around the globe You can use principles derived from psychological science to enhance your learning and increase your likelihood of performing well on tests

What do Psychologists Do? ● Clinical 43% - psychological disorders and treatments ● Counselling 11% - not interested in abnormal behaviour, program, marriage ● Development 4% - stages of lifetime, biology, environment, behaviour ● Educational 5% - students learning, evaluation ● Experimental 8% - direct/indirect psychodynamic ● Personality 2% - development, measurement ● School 7% - works primarily in the school issues, aptitude testing ● Social 4% - normal behaviour, everyday life, love, group settings ● Others 9% Themes 1. Psychology is empirical - study using science, data 2. Psychology is theoretically diverse - multiple theories 3. Behaviour is determined by multiple causes 4. Hereditary and environment jointly influence behavior 5. Experience is subjective - individual experiences 6. Psychology evolves in a socio-cultural historical context...