Psychology Chapter 9 Notes PDF

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Summary

Introduction to Psychology with Dr. Norden
Chapter 9: Lifespan Development
Topics include:
Lifespan Development
Genotype and Phenotype
Prenatal Development
- Germinal period
- Embryonic period
- Effect of alcohol
- Fetal period
Infant Perce...

Description

Psychology Unit 9 Notes: Lifespan Development

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Genotype: specific genetic information a person inherits o Has the potential to influence physical and behavioral characteristics o Example: eye color, height, intelligence, shyness Phenotype: physical and behavioral traits an individual actually exhibits o Example: blue eyes, height of 5’10, IQ of 120 o Phenotype=genotype X environment o Match vs Mismatch  If you inherit the genes for blue eyes, you will have blue eyes  If you inherit the genes to be 5’10 and live in poverty, you may end up being 5’8

Prenatal Development 

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Germinal Period o First two weeks post conception o Journey from fallopian tube to uterus o Implantation o Two masses: placenta and embryo Embryonic Period o Occurs between week 3-8 o At the end of week 8, embryo is an inch long o Amnion surrounds the embryo  Acts as a cushion for the embryo o Organs and major systems of body are formed o Greatest risk from teratogens: any harmful agent or substance that can cause birth defects or death  Effects of alcohol  Alcohol crosses placental membrane almost immediately in bloodstream  Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)  1 in every 750 births  Cognitive disabilities  Hyperactivity  Short attention span  Retarded growth  Distinct facial characteristics  Poor motor skills  Don’t know how much alcohol causes damage  12-month pregnancy concept  Alcohol can affect caretaking ability  More difficult to take care of a FAS baby Fetal Period

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Occurs from week 9 to birth (38 weeks) Organs begin to work Rapid brain development  Increases by six times in size  250,000 neurons are created a minute Quickening: feeling the baby move Layer of fat added in 8th month  Fat regulates temperature Fetus receives antibodies from mom’s blood to protect against illnesses

Infant Perceptual Abilities 

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Vision o Vision at birth is 20/300 o Can only see 4 feet in front o Depth perception – Gibson Study  Babies were able to crawl  Visual cliff: half the table is covered in wallpaper; other half has wallpaper below it  Can baby notice difference between wallpaper on table and wallpaper on the ground  Baby doesn’t go farther than the halfway point Hearing o Begins before birth o Can register sound two months before birth o Cat in the Hat Study  Mom read Cat in the Hat twice a day for the last 6 weeks of pregnancy  Was given headphones to listen to mom read Cat in the Hat, mom read a different book, someone else reads Cat in the Hat  Baby was given a pacifier that register how much baby is sucking  Baby sucked more when they listened to their mom read Cat in the Hat o Low vs High Frequency  Can hear high frequency better than low

Temperament     

Child’s inborn predisposition to behave and react in a certain way Easy (40%): generally happy, adjusts easily to new situations, develops eating and sleeping habits Difficult (10%): more emotionally negative, resists change, unpredictable eating and sleeping habits Slow to Warm Up (15%): doesn’t show extreme emotions, slow to adopt to new situations Hard to Classify (35%): combination; depends on the day

Attachment Theory

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Close emotional bond of affection between child and caregiver Attachment may have impacted how we relate to others throughout our lives Harlow Research o Took baby monkey away from mom o Wire monkey with food vs cloth monkey without food o Baby monkey chose the cloth monkey Strange Situation o First mom and infant spend time together o Stranger goes into the room o Mom leaves, stranger is alone with infant o Watches how the infant interacts with the stranger o Mom comes back o Watches how the infant reacts to mom coming back Secure Attachment (65%) o Very upset when mom leaves o Stranger is not able to comfort the infant o Happy to see mom when she comes back Insecure Attachment o Avoidant (20%)  Baby doesn’t interact with mom  When mom leaves, may or may not be upset  If upset, can be comforted by stranger  When mom comes back, avoids mom o Ambivalent (12%)  Hits mom when she comforts child Reasons for Differences o Mom’s behavior; key element is sensitivity in caregiving  Baby learns mom is dependable, learns to trust o Infants Behavior  Difficult temperament + insensitive and unresponsive care = ambivalent  Easy-going temperament + insensitive intrusive, overstimulating = avoidant Importance o If infant is related as securely attached at age 1…  Better peer relationships and greater empathy at age 3  Greater self-esteem, independent, and social skills at age 5 o Effects on adults  Relationship with parents carry onto other relationships

Daycare and Development 

Difficult to answer how it affects children o No random assignment o Differences a result of daycare or differences between families o Wide range of quality of daycare

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Typical Research Findings o Relationship between daycare and illnesses  Children in daycare have a higher chance of getting minor and major illnesses  Builds up immune system o Cognitive Findings  Quality daycare leads to advanced cognitive and language skills o Difference in Social Development  Kids in daycare tend to be more social (independent, out-going, confident) Quality is the most important factor o Matters more HOW you are taken care of, not who takes care of you

Piaget’s Cognitive Theory   

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) major pioneer Believed in fixed sequence of universal stages 4 stages 1. Sensorimotor o Occurs from birth to 2 years o Important accomplishment is object permanence  Realization that objects (including people) still exist when they cannot be seen, touched, or heard  Believed it appeared at 8 months  Study  Covered toy with blanket; did kid remove the blanket?  Did classic design asses concept well?  Many other factors involved including motor skill, motivation, and attention  Some idea of object permanence by 2 months  Objects behind a screen  One object, two objects  Infants reaction 2. Preoperational Stage o Occurs from age 2-6 o Operations: mental actions that allow a child to reason about events they experience; the use of formal, logical mental processes o Pre suggests limitations o Short comings: 1. Egocentrism  Tendency of a person to confuse their own point of view and that of another person  Not selfishness, as much as centering on the self in thinking  May be able to with more familiar things  Describing the landscape and then trying to describe it from someone else’s 2. Classifications Skills

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Placement of objects in groups or categories according to some specific standard or criteria  Can classify objects on one dimension  Problem with categories and subcategories  Study: separating types of dogs  Could separate different types of dogs  Asked what has more poodles or dogs  Said poodles because couldn’t differentiate between categories and subcategories 3. Conservation  Understanding that basic physical dimensions remain the same despite superficial changes in object’s appearance  Study: amount of liquid  Same cups had same amount of liquid in them  Poured one cup into a tall and thin container  Said the tall and thin one had more than the original cup  Have taught preschoolers conservation 3. Concrete Operational Stage o o o o o

Occurs age 7-11 Child’s cognitive “actions” are applied to concrete objects or events; logic is used Classification and conservation achieved Collecting things Main limitation: children remain tied to concrete, physical reality; are unable to understand truly abstract/hypothetical questions or ones that use logic

4. Formal Operations Occurs age 12-adolescent Differences from concrete  Emphasis on possible vs real  Use of scientific reasoning  Logically combine ideas o Limitations  Become overly impressed with their thinking; don’t realize the problems with logic Evaluating Piaget’s Approach o Problems with stage approach  Individual  Culture  Inconsistent within an individual o Problem of understanding children’s abilities  Abilities of preschoolers, need to teach o Problem of overestimating how much people use formal operational thought  50% of teens/adults fail to use logical thinking o o

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Problems of understanding the importance of social and cultural environment  Zone of proximal development  Learner could understand with guidance

Stages of Psychosocial Development   

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Developed by Erikson Psychosocial refers to union between physical needs and culture/environment Stages go from birth to old age o Conflict = “crisis” o Importance of favorable ratio  More positive than negative Trust vs Mistrust o Birth to 1 year o Trust: infant can count on getting his needs met o Mistrust: infant feels helpless/abandoned o Trust and mistrust are leaned Autonomy vs Doubt o Age 1-3 o Autonomy: child develops motor skills and independence o Doubt: feeling of being controlled and losing self-control Initiative vs Guilt o Age 3-6 o Initiative: acting on desires/potentials, developing confidence o Guilt: development of conscience, needing to restrain desires appropriately Competence vs Inferiority o Age 6-12 o Competence: child applying himself to learning o Inferiority: child perceives his skills or status to be inadequate

Baumrind’s Parenting Style 1. Control o Expectations, boundaries for children 2. Nurturing/Responsiveness o How caring and child center  Authoritarian o Very controlling and demanding o Much more parent centered o More likely to use physical abuse o “My way or the highway” o Child turns out withdrawn, fearful, lower self-esteem, unhappy, don’t try new things, antisocial which leads to rejection  Permissive-Indifferent o Low in control, undemanding

Child-centered, responsive Acts more like a friend Child is allowed to do anything Children tends to be spoiled, impulsive, aggressive, lack self-control, not very independent, more happy Neglectful o Low control/undemanding o Unresponsive/parent-centered o Lack of parenting Authoritative o Controlling/demanding o Responsive/child-centered o Children tend to turn out the best o Tend to be more likely to be friendly, self-controlled, happy, socially competent, good self-esteem o o o o

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Changes During Puberty 1. Rapid Growth and Weight Gain o Average height at age 11: 59 inches o Average height at age 18: girls – 60 inches boys – 67 inches o Girls have earlier growth spurts 2. Development of Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics o Primary: directly involved in reproduction o Secondary: indicates increasing sexual maturity  First menstrual period (menarche)  Not the first stage of puberty  First ejaculation of seminal fluid  Changes in genitals/breasts, growth of body hair, deepening of voice 3. Changes in Body Composition o Weight gain: girls – 30lbs boys – 40lbs o Muscle weight vs body fat  Effects on Early Maturation o Boys  Advantages: more muscle = more peer and adult approval; more popular, better at sports  Disadvantage: more likely to become involved in delinquency and substance abuse o Girls  Advantages: more popular with boys  Disadvantages: feels less attractive, poorer self-concepts, more sexual attention from boys, more truancy, academic problems, and drug and alcohol use  Adolescent Relationships: Parents o Want increasing independence from parents

 Difficult for parents Generation gap?  Adolescents and parents have similar views in a variety of areas (politics, religion)  Difference exist over issues of personal taste  Most parent/adolescent relationships characterized by love and respect Adolescent Relationships: Peers o Impact of peer pressure  Social issues: more likely to give into peer pressure  Nonsocial issues: more likely to go to an adult  Peer pressure decreases as they age o

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Concept of Adulthood 

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Importance of role transition o Assuming new responsibilities o Completing your education o Being financially stable o Working fulltime o Getting married/having kids Social clock: the culturally set timetable that establishes when role transitions are appropriate

Deciding to Have Children 

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Reasons o Love of children o Desire to experience pregnancy and childbirth o Demonstrate adult status o Impact of own childhood experiences o Conform to social expectations Childlessness increasing o 1976: 9% of women did not have children o 2016: 17% of women did not have children Reasons for smaller families o More normal to have one or two kids o Delayed childbearing o Infertility o Financial concerns

Parenthood and Marital Satisfaction 

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Marital satisfaction tends to decline after birth of first child o Women are more likely to be unhappy o Women are doing majority of childcare and housework Couples who are unhappy before having a kid are more likely to be unhappy after having a kid Ways to increase happiness

Men do more housework and childcare Study about increasing happiness  Interviewed new parents 6 and 18 months after having a child  6 months: wives with husbands who did more housework were happier, husbands were not  18 months: both were happier Empty Nesters o When last child leaves the house, marital satisfaction increases o o

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Adulthood Development 

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Levinson’s Stages 1. Early Adulthood (about 20 to 45) o Big decisions (finishing education, career, marriage, kids) o Pursing goals can be stressful 2. Middle Adulthood (45-65) o Midlife transition or midlife crisis o Research  Most people do not go through a midlife crisis o Happiest in midlife 3. Late Adulthood (65 and beyond) o Generally happier and more satisfied with life Activity Theory of Aging o Suggests that the people who are the happiest are those who are fully involved and engaged with the world o Criticism  Doesn’t make distinction between the types of activities Dying and Death o Theory developed by Elizabeth Kubler-Ross o Based on interviews, she suggested that people pass through 5 stages 1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance o Theory limited to those who are aware they are dying o Stages are not universal, don’t occur in same sequence for everyone o Too few stages?  Anxiety o Many individual differences; important factors:  Cause of dying  How long the process lasts  Person’s age, gender, personality  Social support available

Book Only The New Science of Epigenetics   

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Epigenetics: the study of the cellular mechanisms that control gene expression and of the ways that gene expression impacts health and behavior Differences among size, shape, and function of cells are due to which genes are “expressed” Gene expression can be triggered by the activation of other genes, internal chemical changes, or by external environmental factors o DNA doesn’t change Gene expression is flexible, responsive to both internal and external factors Twins o Twins who develop from a single zygote inherit exactly the same set of genes o As twins develop differences in physical and psychological characteristics become evident o These differences are due to epigenetic changes – differences in the expression of each twin’s genes, not to their underlying DNA, which is still identical Epigenetic research is providing new insights into how the environment affects gene expression and the phenotype o Example: Rat Study  Newborn rats that were genetically predisposed to be nervous and high-strung were shown to develop into calm, stress-resistant adult rats when raised by genetically unrelated, attentive mother rats  Newborn rats that were genetically predisposed to be calm and stress-resistant grew up to be nervous and high-strung when they were raised by inattentive, genetically unrelated mother rats Genes can mutate, spontaneously change, from one generation to the next DNA can be damaged by environmental factors, such as exposure to chemical toxins o Errors in genetic code can lead to birth defects or genetic disorders

Autism Spectrum Disorder  

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15% of children experience a developmental disability of some kind (ranging from mild disorders such as minor speech and language difficulties to more severe conditions such as cerebral palsy) Autism Spectrum Disorder: a group of developmental disorders characterized by (1) difficulties communicating and interacting across a range of settings, and (2) a limited range of behaviors, interests, and activities People with ASD may be unresponsive to social interaction, engage in repetitive or odd motor behaviors, and have very narrow interests and inflexible behaviors and routines Typically diagnosed between 2 and 4 years old 1-2% of children develop ASD 4.5 times as many boys as girls develop ASD Misconceptions

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o Associated with intellectual and/or cognitive deficits 1 in 10 autistic people are savants o Savant: have extraordinary talent or ability Prevalence of ASD has increased over the past several decades Cause o Evidence for both genetic factors and environmental factors (pesticides and air pollution) o No evidence supporting the claim that vaccinations cause ASD o Do not fully understand what causes ASD

The Adolescent Brain: A Work in Progress          

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Human brain goes through two distinct spurts of brain development o One during prenatal development and one during late childhood just before puberty Sixth month of prenatal development: overabundance of neurons in fetal brain Final months of prenatal development: neurons that don’t make connections are eliminated During infancy and early childhood, brain’s outer gray matter continues to develop and grow Tapestry of interconnections between neurons becomes more intricate as dendrites and axon terminals multiply and branch to extend their reach White matter also increases as groups of neurons develop myelin Use-it-or-lose-it principle: unused neuron circuits are eliminated Loss of neurons improves brain functioning by making the remaining neurons more efficient in processing information By the age of 6, the child’s brain is about 95% of its adult size Second wave of gray matter overproduction occurs just prior to puberty o Size, complexity and connections among neurons all increase o Increase in gray matter peaks at age 11 for girls and age 12 for boys o This surge is followed by a second round of neuronal pruning during teenage years Pruning Gray Matter from Back to Front o As the brain matures, neuronal connections are pruned, and gray matter diminishes in a back-to-front wave o As pruning occurs, connections that remain are strengthened and reinforced, and amount of white matter increases o First brain areas to mature are at the extremely front and back of the brain  These areas are involved with very basic functions, such as processing sensations and movements o Next brain areas to mature are the parietal lobes  Involve language and spatial skills o Last brain area to mature is the prefrontal cortex  Plays a critical role in many advanced cognitive functions, such as person’s ability to reason, plan, organize, solve problems, and decide o Prefrontal cortex reaches full maturity in the mid-20s o Adolescent’s occasional impulsive/immature behavior is at least partly a reflection of a brain that still has a long way to go to reach full adult maturity

Moral Reasoning

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Moral reasoning: how an individual think about moral and ethical decisions Kohlberg’s levels and stages of moral development o Preconventional level  Moral reasoning is guid...