Religion and Belief Systems in Australia post-1945 - 2021 notes complete PDF

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Full/condensed notes for Religion in Aus post 1945 - includes statistics and assessment, some past questions and some exemplar answers. Good luck :)...

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CONTEMPORARY ABORIGINAL SPIRITUALITIES • Aboriginal spirituality as determined by the Dreaming KINSHIP -

Complex network of social relationships which connect members of clan/nation → each knows kin and social position Governs interactions and responsibilities - who can marry whom, who is tasked with caring for sick/old , who responsible for conducting religious ceremonies

There are three levels of kinship: Moiety

Totems

Everything is split into two, each half is a mirror of the.other and to understand the whole universe’

Each person has at least 4 totems, which represent nation, clan, family group, and a personal totem

Determined by maternal and paternal - can alternate b/w generations

Totems link a person to the universe - accountable to the totem, but do not own, responsibility to ensure totems protected and passed on

People who share the same moiety considered siblings

Totems are split b/w Moieties to create balance of use and protection

Skin Names Indicates person’s bloodline Conveys information on how generations are linked and how they should interact Family do not share same skin name Each nation has own skin name w/ prefix/suffix to indicate gender

CEREMONIAL LIFE -

Aboriginal spirituality is communicated through art, story, dance etc. - most of which feature in ceremonies Ceremonies express explanations of life from the Dreaming - integral to Ab spirituality bc an oral tradition Totems carry ceremonial/ritual responsibilities Dreaming is inextricably connected to the land. The land is the physical medium through which the Dreaming is livid and communicated. The land is a resting place for ancestral beings

Male Initiation Rites - A rite of passage into adult life → spiritual rebirth - Confers rights and responsibilities (submission to elders etc.) - Learn about kinship and ceremonial obligations - sacred knowledge - Ancestral beings ingest the boy and spew him out into the world as an adult male - Performs certain actions making the transition to adulthood Funeral Ceremonies - Spirit of the dead is returned to “Dreaming place” - Dead treated with great respect, names not spoken, personal possessions destroyed, etc. - It is important they are buried in the land of their ancestors and in the ceremony, the tribe will ensure that through song and dance their spirits will return to the land of their forebears OBLIGATIONS TO THE LAND AND PEOPLE Land -

Spiritual and ensures continuation of Aboriginal life in a physical sense Source of life - food and shelter → moving to different areas Sense of sacredness → dreaming / creation stories Collective ownership and responsibility - identity of IP linked to land as they are born of a totem

Obligations - The land and all it contains is held in sacred ‘trust’ - Tribal land for which there is shared responsibility is known as the ritual estate - Selected areas have spiritual significance and hence sacred sites e.g. totems, ancestors, Dreaming story Clan/language group Indigenous nations cover wide geographical areas, with distinct borders Clans are larger than a family but based on family links Clan groups share a common language and.kinship system, based on.patri- or matri- lineal lines of ..descent

Tribe Tribe refers to a culturally distinct group of people associated with a culturally defined area of land / country

Moiety Discussed above - KINSHIP

A tribe in the Aboriginal context is a group of people related by genealogy, a common language and occupying a recognised area of country

• issues for Aboriginal spiritualities in relation to: – the effect of dispossession – the Land Rights movement Introduction / Stolen Generations SEPARATION/SEGREGATION/PROTECTION POLICIES Mid 1880s → came about as a push to ‘civilise’ Ab people Aim to remove from ‘unsuitable enviros’ → place under state ‘protec’, intent to isolate/segregate Removed to missions (church) or reserves (gov) [protection] Changed names, decided marriage, controlled employment and wages RESULT: When on missions, couldn’t practice beliefs → loss of identity, destroyed spirituality, links to land, kinship system, gender roles, language, culture & ceremonies ASSIMILATION POLICY 1901 - Commonwealth of Aus Constitution Act 1900 → excluded Ab people Ab hadn’t died out, so were becoming a financial burden → reverse of goal Reforms to program to develop ‘Western skills’ in IP Stolen Generations Forcible removal of children from 1900 - 1972 ‘To smooth the pillow of a dying race’ ⅓ to 1/10 separated from family Result: many exploited, treated inhumanely, severed ties w/ Dreaming → couldn’t fulfill ritual responsibilities Loss of identity → Given Western name, but didn’t belong bc skin colour; didn’t know Indigenous heritage, no Indigenous name, didn’t know responsibilities of dreaming and kinship, so didn’t belong OVERALL CONTINUING EFFECTS INCLUDE Lower life expectancy Higher rates of infant mortality Over-representation in prisons

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Higher unemployment rates Higher drug and alcohol abuse Higher use of gov social services

SEPARATION FROM LAND -

‘Terra nullius’ → declared when Arthur Phillip arrived in 1788 Immediate effect of colonisation → separation of Ab people from land/kinship Spiritual despair manifested in slow self-destruction - still exists today Spiritual connection has been maintained despite, but v limited Enormous loss of spiritual identity - inextricably linked to the land and the Dreaming Loss and disruption of purpose, loss of land to colonialism - destruction of sacred land for housing, mining, industry, tourism etc. → Cultural practices and ceremonies associated with sacred sites/land cannot be carried out

SEPARATION FROM KINSHIP GROUP -

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Breakdown in authority of elders - oral tradition encouraged by kinship trad Unable to pass on stories → unable to practice rituals; not in presence of ancestors Loss of language Culture relies on oral tradition → many stories died out, not many who speak language Totem responsibilities (linked to land) disrupted completely Sep of families (Stolen Gens) destroyed kinship systems

Stolen Generations -

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Many Ab children suffered maltreatment, humiliation, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, torturous work conditions etc. Loss of language, land and culture, as well as identity Many affected unable to connect to ancestral beings Loss of kin → breakdown of kinship groups & loss of purpose Ex 2011 census Ab ppl 2.7% of Aus pop, but 20% of prison pop - also 20% unemployment rate amongst Indigenous Aus Indigenous Aus suffer drug-induced mental disorders 5x national average rate - schiz at 2x national ave 2005-2007, gap b/w indigenous and non-indigenous life expectancy - 11.5 years male; 9.7 years female Indigenous life expectancy at birth - 67.2 yr male; 72.9 yr female

Origin and Importance of Land Rights movement -

Vincent Lingiari - Gurindji ppl and leader of Wave Hill mob instigated the modern land rights movement in 1966 After protracted dispute b/w Gurindji ppl of NT and English Cattle baron Lord Vesty, Whitlam Fed Giv passed first land right legislation in 1975 Land rights movement is important in helping Aboriginal ppl reestablish spiritual links w/ land Ancestor spirits continue to inhabit the land; totem bind ppl w/ particular aspects of the land; sacred duties and rituals required for wellbeing of land and all who dwell on it Even more important ifNative Title can be granted over sacred sites - carry special significance bc of signif Dreaming events, and important places to carry out ritual duties Wave Hill mob went on strike for better conditions on a Northern Territory Cattle Station there - Occurred in 1966, became precursor for Land Rights movement - Whitlam Gov passed first land rights legislation 1975 - benefited v small amount of Ab ppl, ineffective fix

Native Title -

Native Title: communal and/or individual rights or interests of Aboriginal people or Torres Strait Islanders in relation to water or land

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Claimed based on stories of the Dreaming, location of totems and sacred sites, elders customary possession of the land - 1993, Keating Labor Gov passed Native Title Act - aimed to codify the Mabo decision, implemented strategies to facilitate process of granting native title - Key provision to set up a NAtive Title Tribunal to register, hear and determine native title claims - Two pre reqs: - Needs to be proven that native title not extinguished by freehold title, and is not inconsistent with the way the land is currently used → can only be claimed for Crown (gov owned) land, and land being leased by the crown. If owned by individual, (freehold land) native title cannot be claimed - Continued connection with the land prior to 1788 - difficult to prove as Ab societies not based on written contracts - thus could only claim v small percentage of Aus land, as almost all had been bought sold or granted by other ppl LIMITATIONS - Many argue that current provisions for native title do not go far enough - in many cases, native title foes not ensure access to sacred sites, as most on freehold or pastoral leases (farms/mines), thus unable to visit and perform necessary rituals - Native title has assisted some Ab groups to gain economic and social independence, thus enabling them to preserve their culture in a way that is deemed appropriate by them Mabo -

High Court of Aus ruled in favour of Eddie Mabo’s case, brought forward on behalf of Merriam ppl of Murray Island Court ruled Aus was occupied at time of settlement by the British - Terra Nullius :. False Acknowledged that under certain circumstance a form of Native Title existed, but it had to be proven that there were continuous maintained links w/ the land since prior to 1788

Wik -

Wik ppl brought forward case that claimed that Leasehold Title may not automatically extinguish Native Title 1966, High Court ruled in favour Leasehold Title: right for someone to use land for the limited period of lease, vacate at end of said period High Court found that in several circumstance, the two titles could co-exist, but in areas of dispute Leaseholder Title would trump the Native Title claim Main feature of legislation to transfer from Fed Gov to various State Govs power to upgrade Leasehold to Freehold Title, thus extinguishing Native Title

Importance of the Dreaming for the Land Rights Movement -

Modern land rights movement is testament to the centrality of the role of land to Ab spirituality First grant of land rights in 1975 by Whitlam Gov, the Mabo and Wik decision of 1990s is essentially a public recognition and acknowledgement by Aus ppl of the importance of Ab spirituality The land is a resting place for ancestral beings, each Ab person connected to land through their totem Connection w/ land allow Ab ppl to fulfill their totemic responsibilities Sacred sites imperative to dreaming, Native Title could be claimed on sacred sites, Ceremonial life linked w/ land Land inextricably tied to one’s identity and Dreaming. LRM meant legal process in place that enabled some to claim Native Title, thus connecting it w/ the land Ab ppl have ritual responsibilities - manifest in the performance of balance rituals on sacred sites as part of totemic system

RELIGIOUS EXPRESSION IN AUSTRALIA – 1945 TO THE PRESENT • the religious landscape from 1945 to the present in relation to: – changing patterns of religious adherence – the current religious landscape TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS

Numerical increase/decrease of religious group Total number of religious group increase or decrease from census to census Percentage x population = number of religious adherents Percentage decrease does not equal a numerical decrease Percentage of population increase/decrease Rate of growth of religious growth Which group has the greatest growth during a census period? Difference / original x 100 = rate of growth STATISTICS

CHRISTIANITY Methodist Church ceased 1977, many members absorbed into Uniting Church (est. same year) Jehovah’s Witnesses active in Aus in early 20th Cent, but banned in WWII. Menzies gov banned the faith Jan 1941 - only Christian denom to be banned in 20th cent Aus - ban overturned by High Court in 1943 Ang and Cath two denoms that have had greatest portion of Christians at some point NO RELIGION Option officially appeared as a tick box in 1991 2011, 24% of men, 21% of women have no religion - males always more likely, most likely age is mid twenties 2016 first time no-religion over took catholicism 27% of overseas-born Aus pop declared no religion ANGLICAN Christianity had percentage and numerical decrease from 2011 to 2016 Anglicans most dramatically affected - 39% in 1947, 13.3% in 2016 Ang and Cath two denoms that have had greatest portion of Christians at some point

CATHOLIC Increased from 20.9% in 1947, 25 - 27% since 1960s 22.6% in 2016 (% decrease, but no. increase) Peak was 1991, at 27.3% 1986 Cath overtook following of Ang for first time in Aus census

PRESBYTERIAN / UNITING CHURCH Pres: 9.8% in 1947, 2.3% in 2016 Uniting: 7.6% in 1986, 3.7% in 2016 Decrease in percentage and numerical Uniting Church first denom created entirely in Aus → Congregational Union of Aus, Methodist Church of Australasia and Presbyterian Church

ORTHODOX 0.2 % in 1947, 2.7 - 2.8% in 1970s, 2.1% in 2016 Fastest growing denom of christianity Numerical decline in 2016

PENTECOSTAL Steady growth - greatest fidelity of any denomination 0.2% in 1960s, 1.1% in 2016 In 2000, encouraged to write Aus Christian Churches not Pentecostal, so census may not reflect

SECULARISM - NO RELIGION 0.3% 1947, 30% 2016 Sevenfold increase as includes those who would have been under ‘Not stated’ category (in 1971) Includes agnosties, atheists, humanists, rationalists

JEWISH Quite steady since introduction 0.5% 2011, 0.4% 2016 Inaccurate due to religious persecution

HINDU/MUSLIM/BUDDHISM Steadily increasing - Buddhism → rapid growth in recent decades (until 2016), 0.5% 1986, 2.5% 2011, 2.4% in 2016, unable to attribute to immigration, thus inc in adherents from mainstream pop in Australia, third most pop - Islam → 2016 most popular non-Christian, inc dramatically, 0.04% 1947, 2.2% 2011, 2.6% 2016, 6% of overseas born population - Hinduism → 0.1% 1986, 1.9% 2016, fastest growing religion

SIKHISM 2016 fifth largest religion in Aus 126000 followers Vic has steepest inc in last 5 years 0.5% of Aus pop 1.6% of overseas born pop

CHRISTIANITY AS THE MAJOR RELIGIOUS ADHERENCE -

Constantine attributed his success to Christian God when becoming emperor, proclaimed his conversion to Christianity → now the official religion Anglican Church remains tied to Britain - but weakened → constitution passed in 1962 dissolved legal ties, so CoE in Aus free to determine all matters of faith/worship/discipline for itself 1982 → became Anglican Church of Aus (dropping reference to England, display independence) Catholic Church → cont to inc numerically an proportionally until 1966 ( first % drop) Substantial amount of immigrant intake is Catholic Trend to identify as Catholic if baptised, even though not practising - contribution to steady portion of Catholic Over 30 ethnic groups constitute Aus’ Catholic Church → largest number of adherents of all denominations in Aus Uniting Church (Methodists, Presbyterians Congregationalists) largest of the reformist trad of Protestantism → now third-largest denomination in Aus Recognises all can be called to preach the gospel - church committed to issues of social justice Pentecostalism → remained steady, but many only in for a short amount of time (see denom switching) Well known for emphasis on music especially contemp, appealing for younger adherents 2001 saw decline in Pentecostalism - largely attributed to misinterpretation of definition of Pentecostal congregated to form Australian Christian Churches, so data split b/w the two Christianity (Catholicism present on first fleet, second in numbers to CoE) introduced at colonisation 1986 Aus census, Catholic Church largest denomination → has remained as such Main changes: immigration, conversion, rise of New Age religions, secularism and atheism Percentage dec in Christianity, but still major religious tradition Christianity reflected in the lifestyles, legal and political systems and dominant culture

DENOMINATIONAL SWITCHING -

More common w/in Protestant denominations over Catholic/Orthodox → denominational loyalty Distinctive traditions, histories and loyalties Protestant → what is right for them; Cath/Ortho → emphasis on needs of trad community Significance of a ‘lifetime loyalty’ has diminished due to individualism w/in culture and lives Reasons w/in protestant denoms for switching: more relevant religious practices, ones that cater to specific spiritual needs, search for community oriented religious group People under 40 more likely to switch (less focus on lifetime loyalty), over 60 opposite 1996 → 60% inc in Pentacostal statistics over 10 years → attract adherents disaffected by other Christian communities Penta fastest growing religion in world (500 mill established adherents), but many leave after 2 years

RISE OF NEW AGE RELIGIONS

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Counterculture movement of the 1960s opened way for the New Age movement → ‘a loosely structured network of individuals/organisations holding new visions of enlightenment and harmony while subscribing to a common worldview’ Differ from trad churches → no single unifying creed/doctrine, no Holy text, no central organisation, no formal leadership Rise in popularity of Hinduism and its different deities → more curiosity of the divine Now considerably diverse, encompasses a great number of religious/secular philosophies ‘New Agers’ believe it is possible to draw truth from variety of sources → syncretic philosophy Inclusive, all reality seen as both interrelated and interdependent Can be practised instead of traditional religious practices, or alongside Multifaceted; affirming, not guilt laden→ Draws on Eastern meditation, reincarnation, spiritualism + W/in are neo-pagans (revived paganism - rejected religion, male domination and abuse of nature)

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Fastest growing religious faiths in 2001 census, inc by 140% since 1996 Disillusionment w Government (Vietnam War) led to questioning of trad authority e.g. church Media began to release stories of church clergymen involved in sexual abuse Growing emphasis of autonomy and individualistic ideologies → obligation to needs of self Unsettled and turbulent nature of times → people seeking spiritual insight New Age Religion says popularity result of age of Aquarius and coming of utopian world Typically reject monotheism, but may accept polytheism, pantheism (nature), goddesses, or monism (all is one)

NUMEROLOGY - Belief in the divine and/or mystical r/ship b/w numbers and events - Study of numbers and occult way numbers adhere to patterns and trends in cosmic plan - Each letter has numeric value, corresponding to cosmic vibration - Sum of numbers in DOB and from letters of name provide interrelation vibrations that reveal your character ASTROLOGY - Relates to zodiac, originating in Ancient Babylon - Twelve signs mirror constellations - according to Astrology we are in the period of Enlightenment - Human kind will experience a new birth and will move into a higher standard of consciousness YOGA - Mystic roots in Eastern religious practices and now largely endorsed and practised in western culture also - Many diff types - KArma, Tantra, Laya, Mantham Hatha - all mix exercise w/ meditation to connect body & mind PAGANISM - Broad term, used to inc several diff belief systems and practices (Celtic revivalism, druidism, goddesses, Sacred Ecology, Wicca) - typically polytheistic or pantheistic belief systems FENG SHUI - Chinese philosophical tradition...