Research for pest control; Oregano extract as cockroach repellent PDF

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1 INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Cockroaches are common pests in the tropics. They have been known to cause allergic reactions to most people and chew holes on clothes. The real danger of cockroach lies in their ability to transmit sometimes lethal diseases and organisms such as Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., Hepatitis viruses, and Coliform bacteria. They have been known to contaminate food, at the same time infect it with the bacteria they carry. The bacteria they spread in food can cause food poisoning. Natural contamination of cockroaches with wide range of pathogenic organisms including about 40 species of bacteria, nearly 12 species of pathogenic helminthes, the second largest group of vertebrate pathogens, and also viruses, protozoa and fungi affecting man and other vertebrate animals have been reported by numerous studies. Often their movement between waste and food materials led to acquire, carry, and mechanically transfer the said pathogens. As proven, cockroaches play a prominent role in carrying and distributing organisms causing diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, leprosy, plague, typhoid fever, and viral diseases such as poliomyelitis. They also carry the parasitic worms such as Taenia, Shistosoma, and Ascaris that may cause allergic reactions, including dermatitis, itching, swelling of the eyelids, and more serious respiratory conditions (Stankus et al., 1990; Savoldelli & Luciano, 2005). People have used various instruments to control the cockroach problem in homes. The most popular is the commonly used insecticide sprays. Most of these can destroy cockroaches but they can also do serious damage to humans as well. According to

2 experts, the active ingredients in these sprays like tethramethrin and petroleum distillates can cause severe chest pains and cough attacks when inhaled. The second most popular instrument is the cockroach coils. These coils can kill roaches yet the active ingredients in these coils like allethrin, pynamin forte, prothrin, and pyrethrin, can cause harm to humans when inhaled. The third most popular is the flypaper. The concept of the flypaper is simple. The roaches just stick into it. But when they are stuck, the roaches die and carcass can spread more bacteria. In addition to the side effects of these materials, the costs of these insecticides are high. Also insecticide use is restricted in places such as food preparation areas, restaurants, storage buildings, and apartments. These restrictions of chemical insecticide application increase demand for safer alternatives against cockroach infestations (Savoldellis & Suss, 2005; Phillips & Appel, 2010). Different levels of resistance to many compounds of chemical insecticides including organochlorine, organophosphorus, and carbamat insecticides have been documented in many field-collected strains of cockroaches from Iran. So, application of these insecticides should be stopped and replaced with other safer compounds (Nasirian et al., 2006; Nasirian, 2010, Ladonni et al., 2013). With the aforementioned effects of chemical insecticides against cockroaches, there is a need of natural and safe insecticides arises, which leads to the use of plant extract as the main ingredient in making an insecticide. Plant extracts and essential oils are reported to have a wide range of activity against insect and mite pests, plant pathogens, fungi, and nematodes. Recent reports highlighted antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-cancer, and insecticidal properties of plant essential oils (Isman, 2006). They have fumigants, anti-feedant and repellent effects as well as inhibiting the reproduction in

3 cockroaches (Omara et al., 2013). The repellent effect of oregano extract against many insect pests such as cockroaches and other households’ insects has been reported (Chen et al., 2002). Numerous studies have demonstrated the toxicity and repellent activity of oregano extract against cockroaches (Omara et al., 2013). Considering the cockroaches’ role in transmission and distribution of many human pathogens, their resistance to many chemical insecticides, the side-effects of insecticide usage in human dwellings, high distribution of the brown-banded cockroach in household and eventually in order to find an alternative for chemical insecticides, the present study was done to evaluate repellent activity of Oregano leaves extract (Origanum vulgare) against cockroach.

Review of Related Literature and Studies This chapter presents the review of the related literature and studies after which were relevant to the proposed study. This review focused on identifying similar work done within the area, and examines existing findings and suggests further studies. Related Literature Pests are various organisms, such as fungi, insects, rodents, and plants that harm crops or livestock or otherwise interfere with the wellbeing of human beings. Pests are controlled by the use of pesticides and biological control methods (Dictionary of Biology, 2006). Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest,

4 usually because it is perceived to be detrimental to a person's health, the ecology, or the economy. Cockroaches are insects that are identified by their long antenna and legs. They look like beetles and many come in a variety of shapes, sizes and colors. These bugs are a scavenger, which means they go out and collect food. Ultimately, this means they go where the food is. If they could not find food, they continue to look for it until they find it; unfortunately, this oftentimes brings them into homes. Cockroaches thrive best in warm conditions, particularly in areas where the temperature exceeds 70° Fahrenheit or 21.1° Celsius. They absolutely love humid and dark places. Typical of scavengers, if they discover that they have plenty of access to food crumbs or scraps inside homes, they are more likely to take up residence. They are also attracted to garbage and garbage disposals, where a lot of food ends up. This can have adverse effects on the health of anyone inhabiting where the cockroaches infest. There are about 30 different species of cockroaches, though only four (4) are known to be pests (Sharififard et al. 2019). The

brown-banded cockroach, Supella longipalpa (Fabricius), is a domestic

(cockroach that live their entire life indoors) cockroach species. This species derives its name from two (2) prominent bands present on nymphs and adults. Nymphs: Two light colored bands are present behind the posterior margin of the mesonotum (the second segment of the thorax) and dorsal side of the first several segments of abdomen, distinguishing them from nymphs of other cockroach species. Adults: The adult males (13-14.5mm) are longer than the adult females (10-12mm), but females are more robust (Cornwell, 1968). The brown-banded cockroach is sometimes referred as the “furniture cockroach” because it tends to distribute throughout residence, including non-food

5 containing environments such as the bedroom, under tables, and behind pictures on the walls (Schall, 2011). Domestic cockroaches like the brown-banded cockroach are closely associated with humans and have the potential to adversely affect human health. According to Kramer and Brenner (2009), cockroaches are recognized as one of the most important source of allergens, with about half of asthmatics allergic to cockroaches. Allergens from cockroaches include cast skins and excrement. Some symptoms of cockroach-induced allergies include sneezing, skin reactions, and eye irritation (Wirtz, 1980). Similar to dust mites, feces, saliva, and parts of their bodies that they shed or that fell off contain specific proteins or allergens that may cause allergies or can trigger asthma symptoms. Cockroaches can also bite humans. While they do not feed on blood, and they do not bite out of defense, they can bite humans (both living and dead) if they are hungry, these are not aggressive insects. Cockroaches carry and transmit many pathogens. Studies have linked roaches to the spread of salmonellosis, cholera, dysentery, typhoid fever, gastroenteritis, Guardia, E. coli, listeriosis, as well as leprosy and plague. In addition to these proteins that the cockroaches naturally carry, there have been test done on cockroaches that examine the pathogens in their bodies. The scary thing is that cockroaches can carry some serious diseases. Salmonella Typhi, which causes Typhoid, has been found in cockroaches. Poliomyelitis, which causes Polio, has also been found in these insects. They can also cause Dysentery, a disease that causes severe diarrhea that may include bleeding. It is important to point out that cockroaches are not considered vectors for disease and are not reservoirs for disease. They play a supplementary role in spread of diseases, not a primary one (Alizndeh, Ismaeil et al. 2016).

6 Cockroaches live in a wide range of environments around the world. These pest species prefer warm conditions and thus are commonly found in the buildings of densely populated cities. In fact, there are reports that 78 to 98 percent of urban homes have cockroaches - with as many as 900 to 330,000 cockroaches per home. Cockroaches are most active when the temperature is greater than 70 degrees Fahrenheit and they thrive in warm environments with easily accessible food and water. These insects are mainly nocturnal and will run away when exposed to light. Amazingly, some cockroaches have been known to live up to three months without food and a month without water. The National Cooperative Inner-City Asthma Study (NCICAS) found that asthmatic children with both a positive skin prick test to cockroach allergen, and a high exposure to cockroach allergen in the bedroom were more likely to have wheezing, missed school days, nights without sleep, and unscheduled medical visits and hospitalizations for asthma. Approximately 23 percent to 60 percent of urban residents with asthma are sensitive to the cockroach allergens. However, the risk of asthma from cockroach allergen exposure and allergy is not limited to children. Asthma is a serious, sometimes lifethreatening chronic respiratory disease. Unfortunately, it directly affects the quality of life for almost 25 million Americans, including an estimated 7 million children. Millions more are impacted as family members of persons with asthma. Although there is no cure for asthma, it can be controlled through medical treatment and management of environmental triggers such as cockroach allergens. Cockroaches can also passively transport microbes on their body surfaces including pathogens that are potentially dangerous to humans. Cockroaches have been implicated in the spread 33 kinds of bacteria, including E. coli and Salmonella species, six parasitic worms and more than

7 seven other types of human pathogens E coli and Salmonella are classic causes of food poisoning, or gastroenteritis. Common symptoms include belly pain, severe stomach cramps and tenderness, diarrhea which can sometimes be bloody, nausea and vomiting. Some people can experience severe diarrhea, which will cause dehydration and may require hospitalization. In rare cases, the bacteria can spread to the blood stream and cause life threatening infections (Dr. Parada, J., 2012). Plant-based repellents have been used for generations in traditional practice as a personal protection measure against insects. Knowledge on traditional repellent plants obtained through ethno botanical studies is a valuable resource for the development of new natural products. Recently, commercial repellent products containing plant-based ingredients have gained increasing popularity among consumers, as these are commonly perceived as “safe” in comparison to long-established synthetic repellents although this is sometimes a misconception. To date insufficient studies have followed standard of World Health Organization (WHO) Pesticide Evaluation Scheme guidelines for repellent testing. There is a need for further standardized studies in order to better evaluate repellent compounds and develop new products that offer high repellency as well as good consumer safety. Essential oils distilled from members of the Lamiaceae (mint family that includes most culinary herbs), Poaceae (aromatic grasses) and Pinaceae (pine and cedar family) are commonly used as insect repellents throughout the globe. Many members of these families are used in rural communities through burning or hanging them within homes. Almost all of the plants used as repellents are also used for food flavoring or in the perfume industry, which may explain the association with these oils as safer natural alternatives to N-Diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET) despite many oils causing

8 contact dermatitis. Many commercial repellents contain a number of plant essential oils either for fragrance or as repellents including peppermint, lemongrass, geraniol, pine oil, pennyroyal, cedar oil, thyme oil, patchouli, and oregano. Most of these essential oils are highly volatile and this contributes to their poor longevity as insect repellents. However, this problem can be addressed by using fixatives or careful formulation to improve their longevity (Maia, M. and Moore, S., 2011). The advocates of plant-based repellents are moving forward as consumers demand means of protection from arthropod bites that are safe, pleasant to use and environmentally sustainable. Perhaps the most important consideration is improving the longevity of those repellents that are effective but volatile. Several studies looked at improving formulations of plant oils to increase their longevity through development of Nano emulsions, improved formulations and fixatives; while alternate uses such as spatial activity and excite repellency have also been investigated. Local production of insect repellent would remove the high cost of importation in developing countries. In the past few years, a plant derived repellent, has been proven to be suitably efficacious and safe to compete with DEET in the field of disease prevention, and repellents have been recognized by WHO as a useful disease prevention tool to complement insecticide-based means of vector control. The field of plant-based repellent evaluation and development had become far more rigorous in recent years and developments in methods of dispensing plant-based volatiles means that extension in the duration of repellency and consequent efficacy of plant-based repellents will be possible in future (Maia, M. and Moore, S., 2011).

9 Oregano (Origanum Vulgate), a genus of the mint family (Lamiaceae), also known as wild marjoram, mountain mint, origanum, winter sweet, and winter marjoram is a perennial herb growing to 20 inches with creeping roots, sending up woody stem about a foot high, branched above and it is also an herbaceous shrub which is highly cultivated in the Philippines. The whole plants have strong, peculiar, fragrant, balsamic odor, warn bitterest and aromatic taste. The leaves of oregano are opposite, petiole, about one inch long, nearly entire hairy beneath. When cultivated, the leaves are more elliptical heart shaped with 1.5-3.5 inches long and the margins toothed and rounded. The flowers are in corymbs, with reddish bracts, a two-lipped pale purple corolla and a five-toothed calyx and the seed is thin and dry. It prefers a hot, relatively dry climate, but will do well in other environments. The study conducted by Derwich et al., (2010) evaluated the antibacterial activity and photochemistry of essential oil obtained from Origanum vulgare. Origanum species from the Lamiaceae family are widely distributed in Morocco. The essential oils of O. vulgare collected in Tazouta region of Morocco were obtained by hydro distillation of aerial parts and analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for their chemical composition. Their antibacterial activity was studied in vitro on seven (7) bacterial strains: Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringers, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhimurium, Campylobacter jejuni, and Vibro cholera. Thirty three (33) constituents were identified in leaves oil representing 76.62% of the total oil composition. The yield of essential oil of O. vulgare was 1.15% and the major compound in aerial part was carvacol (18.06%), followed by thymol (7.36%), terpenene (5.25%), cymene (5.02%), limonene (4.68%), caryophylene (4.12%), ledene (3.41%), linaool (2.47%), pinene (2.15%), terpineol

10 (2.10%), and germacrene (2.08%). The bacterial strains tested were found to be sensitive to essential oils studied and showed a very effective bactericidal activity with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) ranging from 0.10 to 4.02 mg/ml (Escanela, 2013).

Related Studies The objective of this is study is to determine the Oregano Essential Oil as potential mosquito larva repellent. In this study, the objective was to assess the chemical composition of the essential oil obtained by hydro distillation of dry leaves from Origanum vulgare by gas chromatography coupled to a flame ionization detector (GCFID) and gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses. The essential oil was tested at different concentrations ranging between 6.25 and 50 ppm on newly molted fourth-instar larvae of Culex pipiens, most abundant mosquito species in Tebessa area (East Algeria) under standard laboratory conditions according to the WHO recommendations. The essential oil yield calculated from the dry matter of the aerial part of the plant was 1.71 %. The GC-MS analyzes revealed twenty-five compounds in essential oils of O. vulgare. The major chemical components identified was carvacrol (77.63%) (Phenolic monoterpene), followed by γ-terpinene (6.79%) and cymene (5.41%), respectively. Bioassay test revealed that this essential oil was found to exhibit a larvicidal activity with dose-response relationship. The relationship between the chemical composition and biological activity of essential oil of O. vulgare is confirmed by the above-mentioned results. Therefore, the potential for exploiting this essential oil, such as

11 bio insecticide for vector control, can be taken in to account (Bouguerra, N., Djebbar, F.T., and Soltani, N., 2019). This study determined the Insecticidal Efficacy and Repellency of Oregano Essential Oil for Control of Sitophilus zeamais and in Stored Maize. The insects are controlled by insecticides that are toxic to humans and pollute the environment. The aim of this research was to evaluate the effect of oregano (Lippia palmeri S. Watson) oil at different concentrations on repellence, emergence, and mortality of maize weevil and larger grain borer. All maize weevils died at 48 hours, while most (92%) larger grain borer died at 72 hours with 1,000 μl/liter of oregano oil. Emergence of treated insects was significantly (p < 0.05) less than the check. The repellency index at 24 hours for larger grain borer was 0.15 at a concentration of 20 μl/liter of oregano oil.

The repellency

index for maize weevil was zero, indicating total repellence at 24 hours. Components of the oil were determined by gas chromatography mass spectrometry to be thymol (58.9%) and p-cymene (21.8%). Oregano oil concentration and time were important in controlling both insect species (Martínez-Evaristo et al., 2015). Sharififard, M., Alizadeh, I., Jahanifard, E., Wang, C., Azemi, M.E., (2018) determined the repellency effect of oregano essential oil, Origanum vulgare, against this pest under laboratory conditions. The essential oil was prepared from dried leaves using hydro-distillation method. A gas chromatography mass spectrometer (GC-MS) was used for analysis and identification of oregano essential oil compounds. Treated surface method in Petri dish was carried out to evaluate repellency potential of the oil using 4th and 5th instar nymphs and adults. The concentration repellency response of oregano essential oil was calculated and compared with a commercial insect repellent stick

12 containing 33% N, N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET). The oregano essential oil consisted of 158 compounds with terpineol (22.85%) and α-terpinene (20.60%) being the major components by ...