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SIX T H EDIT ION

EARTH PORTRAIT OF A PLANET

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www acetxt com SIX TH EDITION

EARTH PORTRAIT OF A PLANET Stephen Marshak UNI V ERSI T Y O F IL L INO IS

n W. W. NORTON & COMPANY NEW YORK • LONDON

www acetxt com W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union. The firm soon expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By midcentury, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade books and college texts—were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of four hundred and a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year—W. W. Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees. Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2012, 2008, 2005, 2001 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. All rights reserved Printed in Canada Sixth Edition Editor: Jake Schindel Senior Project Editor: Thomas Foley Associate Production Director: Benjamin Reynolds Assistant Editor: Rachel Goodman Copy Editor: Norma Sims Roche Managing Editor, College: Marian Johnson Managing Editor, College Digital Media: Kim Yi Digital Media Editor: Robert Bellinger Associate Media Editors: Arielle Holstein and Gina Forsythe Assistant Media Editor: Liz Vogt Media Project Editor: Marcus Van Harpen Editorial Assistant, Digital Media: Kelly Smith Marketing Manager, Geology: Katie Sweeney Design Director: Rubina Yeh Designer: Lissi Sigillo Director of College Permissions: Megan Schindel Photography Editor: Trish Marx Developmental Editor for the First Edition: Susan Gaustad Composition and page layout by MPS North America LLC MPS Project Manager: Jackie Strohl Illustrations for the Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Editions by Precision Graphics / Lachina Illustrations for the Sixth Edition: Stan Maddock and Joanne Brummett Manufacturing by Transcontinental Interglobe—Beauceville, Quebec Permission to use copyrighted material is included in the backmatter of this book. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Name: Marshak, Stephen, 1955– author. Title: Earth : portrait of a planet / Stephen Marshak (University of Illinois). Description: Sixth edition. | New York : W.W. Norton & Company, [2019] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018010310 | ISBN 9780393617511 (pbk.) Subjects: LCSH: Geology—Textbooks. Classification: LCC QE26.3 .M36 2019 | DDC 550--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018010310 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110 wwnorton.com W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., 15 Carlisle Street, London W1D 3BS 1234567890

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To Kathy, David, Emma, and Michelle

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Brief Contents Preface xx See for Yourself: Using Google Earth

xxiii

PRELUDE

And Just What Is Geology? 1

PART I

OUR ISLAND IN SPACE

CHAPTER 1

Cosmology and the Birth of the Earth 16

CHAPTER 2

Journey to the Center of the Earth 40

CHAPTER 3

Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

CHAPTER 4

The Way the Earth Works: Plate Tectonics

66 90

PART II EARTH MATERIALS CHAPTER 5

Patterns in Nature: Minerals

120

INTERLUDE A

Introducing Rocks

CHAPTER 6

Up from the Inferno: Magma and Igneous Rocks

INTERLUDE B

A Surface Veneer: Sediments and Soils

CHAPTER 7

Pages of the Earth’s Past: Sedimentary Rocks

CHAPTER 8

Metamorphism: A Process of Change 242

INTERLUDE C

The Rock Cycle in the Earth System 270

148 160

190 210

PART III TECTONIC ACTIVITY OF A DYNAMIC PLANET CHAPTER 9

The Wrath of Vulcan: Volcanic Eruptions

280

CHAPTER 10

A Violent Pulse: Earthquakes 322

INTERLUDE D

The Earth’s Interior, Revisited: Seismic Layering, Gravity, and the Magnetic Field 370

CHAPTER 11

Crags, Cracks, and Crumples: Crustal Deformation and Mountain Building 390

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PART IV HISTORY BEFORE HISTORY INTERLUDE E

Memories of Past Life: Fossils and Evolution 430

CHAPTER 12

Deep Time: How Old Is Old? 448

CHAPTER 13

A Biography of the Earth 482

PART V EARTH RESOURCES CHAPTER 14

Squeezing Power from a Stone: Energy Resources 522

CHAPTER 15

Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

564

PART VI PROCESSES AND PROBLEMS AT THE EARTH’S SURFACE INTERLUDE F

Ever-Changing Landscapes and the Hydrologic Cycle 590

CHAPTER 16

Unsafe Ground: Landslides and Other Mass Movements 606

CHAPTER 17

Streams and Floods: The Geology of Running Water 634

CHAPTER 18

Restless Realm: Oceans and Coasts

CHAPTER 19

A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater 720

CHAPTER 20

An Envelope of Gas: The Earth’s Atmosphere and Climate 756

CHAPTER 21

Dry Regions: The Geology of Deserts

CHAPTER 22

Amazing Ice: Glaciers and Ice Ages 832

CHAPTER 23

Global Change in the Earth System 876 Metric Conversion Chart

A-1

The Periodic Table of Elements A-2 Glossary G-1 Credits

C-1

Index I-1

676

802

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Special Features WHAT A GEOLOGIST SEES

GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE

Hot-Spot Volcano Track, Fig. 4.17d

The Earth System, Prelude

The East African Rift, Fig. 4.18d

•

106

108

•

Basalt Sill in Antarctica, Fig. 6.12c

Dike Near Shiprock, NM, Fig. 6.13a

•

The Earth from Surface to Center, Chapter 2

173

Crossbeds, Fig. 7.15d

•

The Theory of Plate Tectonics, Chapter 4

226

•

Mineral Formation, Chapter 5

228

Deposits of an Ancient River Channel, Fig. 7.18e

•

Displacement on the San Andreas Fault, Fig. 10.4a Displacement and Fault Zone, Fig. 11.10a Slip on a Thrust Fault, Fig. 11.10b

•

The San Andreas Fault, Fig. 11.10c Horsts and Grabens, Fig. 11.13e Train of Folds, Fig. 11.15d

403

403 •

Flexural-Slip Fold, Fig. 11.16a

130-131

•

Formation of Igneous Rocks, Chapter 6

•

178

Weathering, Sediment, and Soil Production, Interlude B • 200-201 The Formation of Sedimentary Rocks, Chapter 7 •

•

232-233

264-265

Rock-Forming Environments and the Rock Cycle, Interlude C • 272-273

405

Volcanoes, Chapter 9 407

• •

327

110-111

•

Environments of Metamorphism, Chapter 8

403

407

•

Plunging Anticline, Fig. 11.15e

Passive Fold, Fig. 11.16b

•

•

231 •

60-61

•

Magnetic Reversals and Marine Magnetic Anomalies, Chapter 3 • 86-87

Contact Between Basement and Cover Rocks in the Grand Canyon, Fig. 7.2c • 213 Stratigraphic Formation, Fig. 7.13

6-7

Forming the Planets and the Earth-Moon System, Chapter 1 • 34-35

172

•

•

•

296-297

Faulting in the Crust, Chapter 10

408

330-331

•

The Collision of India with Asia, Chapter 11

408

•

416-417

Ramp anticline, Fig. 11.17e

•

409

The Record in Rocks: Reconstructing Geologic History, Chapter 12 • 468-469

Slaty Cleavage, Fig. 11.18b

•

410

The Earth Has a History, Chapter 13

•

Power from the Earth, Chapter 14

550-551

•

Horizontal Sandstone Beds, Fig. 12.4c Chilled Margin, Fig. 12.4h

•

•

453

Forming and Processing the Earth’s Mineral Resources, Chapter 15 • 580-581

454

Unconformity in Scotland, Fig. 12.8a

•

Unconformity in a Road cut, Fig. 12.8b New York Outcrop, OFT. 12.1

•

Topographic Profile, Fig. BxF.1d

457 •

Mass Movement, Chapter 16

Drainage Basins on a Ridge, Fig. 17.5b •

•

•

639

598-599

622-623

613

Oceans and Coasts, Chapter 18

•

•

819

Caves and Karst Landscapes, Chapter 19

The Desert Realm, Chapter 21

•

•

662-663

712-713

Life Cycle of a Large Tornado, Chapter 20

650

Desert Pavement, Arizona, Fig. 21.20b

•

•

The Changing Landscape along a Stream, Chapter 17

593

The Oso, Washington Mudslide, Fig. 16.5b

Floodplain in Utah, Fig. 17.17c

The Hydrologic Cycle, Interlude F

457

481 •

•

514-515

750-751

• •

788-789

822-823

Glaciers and Glacial Landforms, Chapter 22

•

858-859

Consequences of Sea-Level Change, Chapter 23

•

910-911

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Contents Preface

xx

PRELUDE

And Just What Is Geology? 1 P.1 P.2 P.3

In Search of Ideas 1 Why Study Geology? 3 Themes of This Book 5 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Earth System

6–7 10

BOX P.1 CONSIDER THIS: The Scientific Method

Prelude Review 13

PART I OUR ISLAND IN SPACE CHAPTER 1

Cosmology and the Birth of the Earth 1.1 1.2

1.3

1.4

16

Introduction 17 An Image of Our Universe 17 BOX 1.1 SCIENCE TOOL BOX: Force and Energy 20 BOX 1.2 CONSIDER THIS: Foucault’s Pendulum 24 Forming the Universe 25 BOX 1.3 SCIENCE TOOL BOX: Matter and Energy 28 BOX 1.4 SCIENCE TOOL BOX: Heat and Temperature 30 We Are All Made of Stardust 31 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Forming the Planets and the Earth-Moon System 34–35 Chapter Review 38

CHAPTER 2

Journey to the Center of the Earth 2.1 2.2

2.3 24

40

Introduction 41 Welcome to the Neighborhood 41 BOX 2.1 CONSIDER THIS: Comets and Asteroids: The Other Stuff of the Solar System 44 Basic Characteristics of the Earth 47 How Do We Know That the Earth Has Layers? 51

2.5

BOX 2.2 CONSIDER THIS: Meteorites: Clues to What’s Inside What Are the Layers Made of? 55 BOX 2.3 SCIENCE TOOL BOX: Heat Transfer

2.6

58 The Lithosphere and the Asthenosphere 59 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Earth from Surface to Center Chapter Review 64

54

60–61

CHAPTER 3

Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas 66 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

Introduction 67 Wegener’s Evidence for Continental Drift 67 The Discovery of Seafloor Spreading 72 Paleomagnetism—Proving Continental Drift and Seafloor Spreading BOX 3.1 CONSIDER THIS: Finding Paleopoles 79 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Magnetic Reversals and Marine Magnetic Anomalies 86–87 Chapter Review 88

77

CHAPTER 4

The Way the Earth Works: Plate Tectonics 90 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8

Introduction 91 What Do We Mean By Plate Tectonics? 91 Divergent Boundaries and Seafloor Spreading 95 Convergent Boundaries and Subduction 99 Transform Boundaries 101 Special Locations in the Plate Mosaic 104 How Do Plate Boundaries Form, and How Do They Die? 107 Moving Plates 109 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Theory of Plate Tectonics 110–111 Chapter Review 116

PART II EARTH MATERIALS CHAPTER 5

Patterns in Nature: Minerals 120 5.1 5.2

Introduction 121 What Is a Mineral? 122 BOX 5.1 SCIENCE TOOL BOX: Some Basic Concepts from Chemistry: A Quick

5.3 5.4 5.5

Review 124 Beauty in Patterns: Crystals and Their Structure 126 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Mineral Formation 130–131 How Can You Tell One Mineral from Another? 133 Organizing Knowledge: Mineral Classification 136

BOX 5.2 CONSIDER THIS: Asbestos and Health: When Crystal Habit

5.6

Matters! 138 Something Precious: Gems! 140 BOX 5.3 CONSIDER THIS: Where Do Diamonds Come From?

141

Chapter Review 146

INTERLUDE A

Introducing Rocks 148 A.1 A.2 A.3 A.4

Introduction 149 What Is Rock? 149 The Basis of Rock Classification 151 Studying Rock 155 Interlude A Review 159

CHAPTER 6

Up from the Inferno: Magma and Igneous Rocks 160 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7

Introduction 161 Why Do Melts Form? 161 What’s in Molten Rock? 165 Movement and Solidification of Molten Rock 167 BOX 6.1 CONSIDER THIS: Bowen’s Reaction Series 170 Comparing Extrusive and Intrusive Environments 171 How Do You Describe an Igneous Rock? 175 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Formation of Igneous Rocks 178 Plate Tectonic Context of Igneous Activity 182 Chapter Review 188

INTERLUDE B

A Surface Veneer: Sediments and Soils 190 B.1 B.2

B.3

Introduction 191 Weathering: Forming Sediment 193 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Weathering, Sediment, and Soil Production 200–201 Soil 202 Interlude B Review 209

CHAPTER 7

Pages of the Earth’s Past: Sedimentary Rocks 210 7.1 7.2 7.3

Introduction 211 Classes of Sedimentary Rocks 211 Sedimentary Structures 224

7.4 7.5

How Do We Recognize Depositional Environments? 229 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Formation of Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary Basins 237 Chapter Review 240

232–233

CHAPTER 8

Metamorphism: A Process of Change 242 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4

Introduction 243 Consequences and Causes of Metamorphism Types of Metamorphic Rocks 249 Defining Metamorphic Intensity 255

8.5

BOX 8.1 CONSIDER THIS: Metamorphic Facies 257 Where Does Metamorphism Occur? 259

243

BOX 8.2 CONSIDER THIS: Pottery Making—An Analog for Thermal

Metamorphism

261

GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Environments of Metamorphism

264–265

Chapter Review 268

INTERLUDE C Ig n eo u s ro ck fo rm in g , H a wa ii

Sed im en ta ry ro ck, Co lo ra d o

M eta m o rp h ic ro ck, Ca lifo rn ia

The Rock Cycle in the Earth System C.1 C.2

270

Introduction 271 Rock Cycle Paths 271 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Rock-Forming Environments and the Rock

C.3 C.4

Cycle 272–273 A Case Study of the Rock Cycle 274 Cycles of the Earth System 276 Interlude C Review 277

PART III TECTONIC ACTIVITY OF A DYNAMIC PLANET CHAPTER 9

The Wrath of Vulcan: Volcanic Eruptions 280 9.1 9.2 9.3

9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7

Introduction 281 The Products of Volcanic Eruptions 283 Structure and Eruptive Style 290 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Volcanoes 296–297 BOX 9.1 CONSIDER THIS: Explosive Eruptions to Remember 300 Geologic Settings of Volcanism 302 Beware: Volcanoes Are Hazards! 308 Protection from Vulcan’s Wrath 311 Effect of Volcanoes on Climate and Civilization 315

9.8

Volcanoes on Other Planets 317 Chapter Review 320

CHAPTER 10

A Violent Pulse: Earthquakes 322 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7

Introduction 323 What Causes Earthquakes? 325 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Faulting in the Crust 330–331 Seismic Waves and Their Measurement 333 Defining the “Size” of Earthquakes 338 Where and Why Do Earthquakes Occur? 342 How Do Earthquakes Cause Damage? 348 Can We Predict the “Big One”? 359 BOX 10.1 CONSIDER THIS: The 2010 Haiti Catastrophe

10.8

360

Earthquake Engineering andZoning 365 BOX 10.2 CONSIDER THIS: When Earthquake Waves Resonate—Beware!

366

Chapter Review 368

INTERLUDE D

The Earth’s Interior, Revisited: Seismic Layering, Gravity, and the Magnetic Field 370 D.1 D.2 D.3

D.4 D.5

Introduction 371 The Basis for Seismic Study of the Earth’s Interior 371 Seismic Study of the Earth’s Interior 373 BOX D.1 CONSIDER THIS: Resolving the Details of the Earth’s Interior with EarthScope 380 The Earth’s Gravity 382 The Earth’s Magnetic Field, Revisited 386 Interlude D Review 389

CHAPTER 11

Crags, Cracks, and Crumples: Crustal Deformation and Mountain Building 390 11.1 11.2 11.3

11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8

Introduction 391 Rock Deformation in the Earth’s Crust 391 Brittle Structures 397 BOX 11.1 CONSIDER THIS: Describing the Orientation of Geologic Structures 400 Folds and Foliations 405 Causes of Mountain Building 411 Mountain Topography 415 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Collision of India with Asia 416–417 Basins and Domes in Cratons 421 Life Story of a Mountain Range: A Case Study 424 Chapter Review 426

Magnetic s trength (

PART IV HISTORY BEFORE HISTORY INTERLUDE E

Memories of Past Life: Fossils and Evolution 430 E.1 E.2 E.3

E.4

The Discovery of Fossils 431 Fossilization 432 Characterizing Life of the Past 437 BOX E.1 CONSIDER THIS: Defining Life 439 BOX E.2 CONSIDER THIS: The Biosphere’s Biomass 442 Evolution and Extinction 442 Interlude E Review 447

CHAPTER 12

Deep Time: How Old Is Old? 448 12.1 12.2

Introduction 449 The Concept of Geologic Time

449

BOX 12.1 CONSIDER THIS: Time: A Human Obsession

12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6

12.7 12.8

450

Relative Age 452 Unconformities: Gaps in the Record 457 Stratigraphic Formations and Their Correlation 459 The Geologic Column 464 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Record in Rocks: Reconstructing Geologic History 468–469 How Do We Determine Numerical Ages? 470 BOX 12.2 CONSIDER THIS: Carbon-14 Dating 471 Numerical Ages and Geologic Time 475 Chapter Review 480

CHAPTER 13

A Biography of the Earth 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6

13.7 13.8

482

Introduction 483 Methods for Studying the Past 483 The Hadean Eon and Before 486 The Archean Eon: Birth of Continents and Life 487 The Proterozoic Eon: The Earth in Transition 491 BOX 13.1 CONSIDER THIS: Where Was the Cradle of Life? 493 The Paleozoic Era: Continents Reassemble and Life Gets Complex 496 BOX 13.2 CONSIDER THIS: The Evolution of Atmospheric Oxygen 497 BOX 13.3 CONSIDER THIS: Stratigraphic Sequences and Sea-Level Change 498 The Mesozoic Era: When Dinosaurs Ruled 502 The Cenozoic Era: The Modern World Comes to Be 510 GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Earth Has a History 514–515 Chap...