Science Final Study Notes PDF

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study notes for the grade 10 academic science final...

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SNC2D1 Grade 10 Science Review CHEMISTRY Atomic Structures Atom

Cation

Anion

Isotope

Protons

Normal

Normal

Normal

Normal

Neutrons

Normal

Normal

Normal

Added or subtracted neutron

Electrons

Normal

Added electron(s)

One electron less

Normal

Energy Levels

Normal

Should be full

One less

Normal

Proton

Neutron

Electron

Electrical Charge

Positive

Neutral

Negative

Symbol

p+

no

e-

Location

Nucleus

Nucleus

Orbit around the nucleus

Chemical Families and Groups of the Periodic Table Name

Location

Properties

Hydrogen

Above Alkali Metals

Alkali Metals

Far left, below Hydrogen

Soft, highly reactive

Alkali Earth Metals

To the immediate right of the Alkali Metals

Light, reactive

Halogens

To the immediate left of the Noble Gases

Most reactive

Noble Gases

Far right

Full, stable, unreactive

BIOLOGY Cells The Cell Theory Everything is made of cells Cells are the basic functional units of living organisms Cells come from /other/ pre-existing cells except for the very first cell. ***Note: Nothing can function on their own. They need at least 1 cell*** Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote Cells

Prokaryotes In General…

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DNA

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Eukaryotes

No nucleus DNA floats around with no protection o “One big bowl of soup” “Pro” = “before”, “Karyotic” = “nucleus”

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In nucleoid region Single, circular chromosome

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Usually smaller

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Usually larger (~50x)

Membrane-bound organelles

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Our cells Has a nucleus DNA is protected by nuclear membrane “Eu” = “true” “Karyotic” = “nucleus” Within the membrane-bound nucleus Multiple, linear chromosomes

Size

Organelles

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No membrane-bound organelles

-

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Usually single-celled OR in colonies of clones

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Often multicellular with DIFFERENT cell types

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None o New cells are clones of parent cells

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Meiosis: combination of DNA from 2 cells o Offspring are unique

Organization

Sexual Reproduction

***Viruses are not alive. They are injected into you, where they will take over a cell and become a virus producing factory. Every time it shows itself, it is different*** ***Meiosis is the study of how cells become sperm or egg cells***

Eukaryote Cell Organelles Organelle Cell Membrane

Function -

Supports cell and allows for diffusion within the cell Thin layer around the cell

Cytoplasm

-

Is a jellylike substance Many chemical reactions take place in here Suspends organelles in cells

Nucleus

-

Holds genetic information Performs mitosis Spherical structure

Endoplasmic Reticulum (E. R.)

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Modifies and packages proteins from ribosomes into vesicles Two types: o Rough E. R. o Smooth E. R.

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Ribosomes

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Proteins are created on its surface which then enter the E. R.

Golgi Bodies (Apparatus)

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Packages and exports all cell products Expels mucus

Vesicles

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“Transportation capsules” Carries proteins to other organelles OR to the Golgi Apparatus

Vacuoles

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Stores water and dissolved minerals Isolates and removes waste in cell Maintains pressure

Mitochondria

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Does cellular respiration Converts glucose information into useable energy (ATP) Performs mitosis

Chloroplast

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Absorbs light to convert it into sugar molecules for the plant cell

Lysosome

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Has digestive enzymes Digests excess or worn out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria Recycles Performs “cell suicide”

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Reasons for Cell Division - Reproduction (for single-celled, asexual organisms) o single-celled organisms die very quickly, so they split into two identical offspring o multicellular organisms tend to fuse/join sperm and egg cells to create new genetic mixes / diversity - Cell is too large

o Cell size is limited by diffusion § DIFFUSION: the passage of chemicals/particles through the cell membrane from areas of high concentration, to areas of low concentration

o If cell is too large, it takes longer for molecules to get to the rights organelles -

Growth (for multicellular organisms) o Add more cells to become bigger Replacement o “Repairs” damaged cells (for multicellular organisms) o Eg. A cut, torn muscle, broken bone

The Cell Cycle - All cells have a “life span” - Ranges from days to years. o If the cell cycle is stopped, they range your whole adult life - Examples: o Red blood cells: ~10 days o Skin cells: a few weeks o Muscle cell: 15 years o Nerve cell: your whole life - All cells go through the same three stages o Interphase (G1, S, G2) o Mitosis (P.M.A.T.) o Cytokinesis - Interphase: o G1 – Normal Growth and function (G0 if the cell cycle is stopped). It prepares for cell division o S – Synthesis (duplication of DNA) o G2 – Grow more organelles - Mitosis o Prophase § DNA condenses and shortens, the nuclear membrane dissolves and lets chromosomes into cytoplasm o Metaphase § Chromosomes line up in the middle and spindle fibres from opposite sides become attached to the centromere, the nuclear membrane is completely dissolved o Anaphase § The chromosomes are now pulled into halves by the spindle fibres and are taken to the opposite ends of the cells o Telophase § Cell starts to lengthen and a new membrane is created around the

chromosomes

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Cytokinesis o Cytoplasm divides

Difference Between Animal and Plant cells – Cytokinesis o Animal cells: § Center is pinched and daughter cells are created o Plant cells: § Plate forms in the middle of the cell, sealing off contents from both of the new cells P.M.A.T. (Drawing)

Terminology Term

Definition

Chromatin

The material of which the chromosomes of organisms other than bacteria are composed of. It consists of protein, RNA, and DNA

Chromosome

A structure in the cell nucleus made up of a portion of the cell’s DNA, condensed into a structure that is visible under a light microscope

Chromatid

One of two identical strands of DNA that make up a chromosome

Centromere

The structure holding the chromatids together as chromosomes

Centrosome

An organelle that contains the centrioles. It also has spindle fibres develop during cell division

Centriole

Inside of the centrosome, occurring in pairs which are involved in the development of spindle fibres

Cancer - Cancer develops when the genes that control the duration of interphase get mutations that cause a cell to grow and divide too quickly. o ***A mutation is any change to the code in DNA. It may be harmful, beneficial, or have no effect at all whatsoever*** - Cancer also develops from environmental causes which are induced by things like carcinogens like… o Chemicals (foods, cigarette smoke, industrial pollution) o Energy (X-rays, UV-rays from sun or tanning beds) o Some viruses (Hep. B = liver, HPV = cervical) - The cancer cells may form a tumour o Tumours don’t function properly, cannot differentiate, and uses up valuable resources - Treatment may include… o Surgeries: physically removing the cancerous tissue (most reliable method) o Chemotherapy: using a series of drugs that target any rapid dividing cells § It may harm healthy tissues as well, so you use them for a short amount of time, take a break and then use it again. § It only reduces the size of the tumour to make it easier to remove. o Radiation: killing cancer cells with targeted radiation o Biophotonics: uses targeted beams of light to detect and/or activate drugs that kill cancer cells - Carcinogens – a substance capable of causing cancer in living (healthy) tissues - Metastasis – the development of secondary malignant growths at a distance from a primary site of cancer o 1: cells break away from an invasive primary tumour o 2: enters the bloodstream o 3: cells settle elsewhere in the body, and form additional secondary tumours - Malignant vs. Benign tumours Malignant -

Screening

Cancerous Interferes with other normal cell functions May invade nearby tissues Possibility of “metastasizing”

Benign -

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Non-cancerous Does not interfere with the function of other normal cells Large masses may crowd nearby tissues

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X-Ray: uses potentially harmful radiation to get images of tissues MRI: “Magnetic Resonance Imaging” creates a 3D image using harmless magnetic fields, radio waves, and computer analysis CT/CAT Scan: “Computer Axial Tomography” creates 3D image using X-Rays and computer analysis Breast Examination: method involves the woman herself looking at and feeling each breast for possible lumps, distortions or swelling PSA Test: It is a blood test to screen for prostate cancer

Diagnosis - Biopsy: removal of a sample of body tissue for lab examination (eg. PAP test for women) o Biopsies of the respiratory system and digestive system in done with an an endoscope

Stem Cells - Embryonic vs. Adult stem cells Embryonic Stem Cells -

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Adult Stem Cells

Can become all cell types of the body o Pluripotent Grown easily in culture

-

-

-

Totipotent vs. Pluripotent and Induced Pluripotent stem cells

Totipotent -

Thought to be limited to differentiating into different cell types of their tissue or origin Rare in mature tissues Methods to expand their culture in cell culture have not worked out yet Less likely to be rejected by the patient’s immune system

Can form all cell types in a body, plus the extraembryonic, or placental, cells

Pluripotent -

-

-

May give rise to all cell types that make up the body Hard to match to patient’s stem cell line Example of pluripotent stem cell: Embryonic stem cells

Induced Pluripotent -

Cells that can be programmed to be any cell other than embryonic stem cells through the introduction of reprogramming factors

Cellular Differentiation and Specialization - Cellular Differentiation: the process by which a cell becomes specialized to perform a

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specific function Cellular Specialization: is the differentiation of cells as they develop, depending on their location in a tissue or organ, and therefore their primary roles within that tissue, orgn, and ultimately, organism

Hierarchy of Organization 1. Atom 2. Molecule 3. Macro molecule (“Giant molecule”) a. Everything that is living has 4 macro molecules b. All hydrocarbons are macromolecules 4. Organelle a. 1) Beginning of specialization 5. Cell a. 2) Basic functional unit 6. Tissue a. 3) Group of similar cells working together to perform the same task 7. Organ a. 4) A collection of different tissues that work together 8. Organ System a. 5) A collection of different organs that work together 9. Organism a. 6) All systems working together to make a complete individual 4 Main Tissue Types Tissue Type

Examples -

Connective tissue

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Description

Function

Skin Lining of digestive system

Thin sheets of tightly packed cells covering surfaces and lining internal organs

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Bone Tendon Blood

Various types of cells and fibres held together by a liquid, solid, or gel,

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-

Protection from dehydration Low-friction surface

Support Insulation

known as a matrix Muscle tissue

-

-

Nervous tissue

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Muscles that move bones Muscles surrounding the digestive tract heart

Bundles of long cells called muscle fibres that contain specialized proteins

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movement

brain nerves in sensory organs

long thin cells with fine branches at the ends capable of conducting electrical impulses

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sensory communication within the body coordination of body functions

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Digestive System Mechanical vs. Chemical Digestion Mechanical -

Chemical

Physically breaking the food into smaller pieces. Begins in the mouth as the food is chewed

-

-

Involves breaking the food down into simpler nutrients that can be used by the cells Begins in the mouth where the food mixes with the saliva

Organs of the Digestive Tract vs. Accessory Organs, their role and location - Organs of the digestive tract Organ

Role

Location

Mouth

Breaks down the food before being swallowed

Under your nose

Esophagus

Moves food to stomach

After the mouth

Stomach

Holds and churns food to continue process of digestion

After the esophagus, left of the liver and above the pancreas

Duodenum

Prepares food for absorption In between the stomach and in the small intestine small intestine

Small Intestine

Takes nutrients and puts them into the bloodstream

Is folded and is surrounded by the large intestine

Large Intestine

Absorbs water from the food

Surrounds the small intestine

Colon

Reabsorb fluids and process waste products from the body and prepare for its elimination

The large intestine

Rectum

Temporary storage for feces before being expelled from your body

Right before the anus

Anus

Excretes waste (what’s left over of the food)

It’s your butt hole

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Accessory organs o Aid in digestion, but never come in contact with your food

Organ

Role

Location

Liver

Produces bile which helps dissolve fats

Right of the stomach, above the gall-bladder

Gall-bladder

Stores bile which helps dissolve fats

Under the gall-bladder, right of the duodenum

Pancreas

Produces most of the enzymes needed for chemical digestion

Below the stomach

Peristalsis Peristalsis is the involuntary constriction and relaxation of the muscles of the intestine or another canal, which creates wavelike movements that push the contents of the canal forward. Role of Stomach Acid - Liquefies the food in preparation for chemical digestion later - Acid unravels proteins, so it kills any bacteria that might be in your food Role of Specialized Cells: Goblet calls and Absorbing Epithelial Cells with Microvilli

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Goblet cells o Found along the lining of the stomach and intestines o They create the mucous layer inside your stomach by secreting mucous from their golgi o Mucous lubricates the inside of your stomach and intestines, and protects your own cells from your stomach acids Absorbing Epithelial Cells with Microvilli o Absorbs the nutrients inside your small intestine Villi o Inside the intestines, there are cross-sections with folds and inside those folds are many villi. One villus, there are villi on each cell o Inner folds form many villi (bumps) o Each villus is filled with blood vessels o Each villus is lines with absorbing cells and goblet cells. (1 goblet cell to 15 absorbing cells) o Each absorbing cell has microvilli (a highly folded (30-fold and 600-fold)cell membrane)

Circulatory System -

Continuous network of tubes that interact with every organ system Function is to carry O2 and nutrients to all the body’s cells, and CO2and cellular wastes away from them - It has 4 main structures o The heart o 3 main blood vessels (tubes) § Arteries, veins, and capillaries Blood, Heart, and Blood Vessels - Heart o 4 muscular chambers that are separated by one-way valves that prevent blood from moving backwards o RIGHT SIDE receives de-oxygenated blood from the body and sends it to the lungs for gas exchange o Oxygenated blood returns to the LEFT SIDE of the heart, which then gets pumped out to the whole body - Blood Vessels – 3 types o Arteries § Have thick muscle layers and elastic connective tissue § Serves 2 purposes · Contractions prevent vessels from bursting due to high pressure blood coming FROM the heart, and keeps blood moving as it gets farther from the heart § Highest pressure o Veins § Have thin muscle layers and elastic connective tissue. § Pressure is low on the return trip, so veins have a series of one way valves to compensate

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§ Lowest pressure Capillaries o Walls are only one-cell thick, with pores between them, and are so narrow that blood cells squeeze through in single file because is ensures maximum gas exchange o Low pressure

Main Exchange Sites with Outside: -

Around the alveoli of lungs Inside villi of intestines

Internal Exchange Sites With every cell, tissue, and organ of the body

Blood Components: RBC, WBC, Platelets, Plasma (the specialization and function of each) - Plasma o Contains: water and dissolved nutrients, cellular wastes, hormones - Red Blood Cells (RBC) o Small, round biconcave disks which eject many organelles including the nucleus o Carries >95% of O2 and only CO2 - White Blood Cells (WBC) o Part of the immune system (*ratio of ~700:1 of RBC : WBC) - Platelets o Irregularly shaped cell fragments that are activated by damaged blood vessels o They grow fibres that trap RBCs to form blood clots that stop the bleeding Heart: 4 Chambers, Valves, Left vs. Right side - Chambers o Right atrium (upper right chamber) o Right ventricle (lower right chamber) o Left atrium (upper left chamber) o Left ventricle (lower left chamber) - Valves o We need valves so that the blood doesn’t go backwards o Aortic valve and Pulmonary valves - Left vs. Right side of the heart in terms of O2 vs. CO2 Left

Right

Low CO2 and high O2

High CO2 and low O2

Flow of blood - Arteries go AWAY from the lungs and heart - Veins go INto the lungs and heart Blood Vessels - Arteries o Flows away from the heart o Thick muscle layers and elastic connective tissue

o High pressure o High O2, low CO2 - Veins o Flows into the heart o Thin muscle layers and elastic connective tissue o Lowest pressure o High CO2, low O2 - Capillaries o One cell thick with pores between them o Delivers O2 to all cells of the body, including to the alveoli in the lungs and villi inside the intestines Diseases Heart Attack -

Plaque buildup in the heart

Stroke -

Arteries blocked so oxygen can’t get to your brain