Social and Cultural continuity and change PDF

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SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTINUITY AND CHANGE Key Concepts: 1. Beliefs: A set of opinions or convictions; ideas we believe in as the truth. Beliefs can come from one’s own experience and reflection, or from what one is told by others 2. Change: The alteration or modification of cultural elements in a society. Change to society can occur at the micro, meso and macro levels. It can be brought about by modernisation processes, including technological innovation. This force results in an alteration to culture. 3. Conflict: A perceived incompatibility of goals or actions. Conflict can occur at all levels in society and its resolution can involve modification to what was previously in place. 4. Continuity: The persistence or consistent experience of cultural elements in a society across time. Continuity can also be referred to as maintenance of the traditions and social structures that bring stability to a society. 5. Cooperation: The ability of individual members of a group to work together to achieve a common goal that is in the group’s interests and that contributes to the continued existence of the group 6. Empowerment: A social process that gives power or authority to people at a micro level, to groups at a meso level, and to institutions at a macro level, allowing them to think, behave, take action, control and make decisions 7. Modernisation: A process of dynamic social change resulting from the diffusion and adoption of the characteristics of apparently more advanced societies by other societies that are apparently less advanced. It involves social transformation whereby the society becomes technologically advanced and updates cultural life. 8. Sustainability: The required development to meet current human needs whether economic, social or environmental, without jeopardising the needs of future generations or the health of the planet for all species depending on it for their existence. Sustainability implies deliberate, responsible and proactive decisionmaking from the local to the global level and more equitable distribution of resources and minimisation of negative impacts of humans on the planet. 9. Tradition: The body of cultural practices and beliefs that are passed down from generation to generation, often by word of mouth and behavioural modellings, that are integral to the socialisation process and that represent stability and continuity of the society or culture. 1|Page

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Values: Deeply held ideas and beliefs that guide our thinking, language and

behaviour. Differences in values exist among groups of people in society and are a part of one’s culture. Values can be challenged. Westernisation: A social process where the values, customs and practices of 11. Western industrial capitalism are adopted to form the basis of cultural change. Nature of continuity and change Social change refers to long-term differences in human behaviour, cultural values and attitudes. Social change is most often seen in institution of family, education, religion and industry. Changes in social structures and relationships affect social processes, social patterns and social interactions. Long-term social Changes include: 1. Industrial Revolution 2. Abolition of Slavery 3. Feminist Movement Change is a Complex Process  Sociologists agree that social change is non-linear and does not follow one single path or pattern Argument SOCIAL DARWINISM is responsible for change o Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution to societies as a whole. Drawing on Darwin’s ideas of ‘survival of the fittest’, Social Darwinists proposed that stronger cultures, traits and practices endure because they dominate the weaker aspects of culture. However, social and cultural selection can often be due to a certain group’s beliefs about which culture should remain.  Different levels in society make change a complex process o E.g., Macro-level change may filter down to affect individuals on a micro level. o Same way if meso-level changes are instigated, they can affect both macro and micro levels of society

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Change is also complex because of added challenges, such as preserving heritage in times of technological advancement, and because of issues related to the size and rate of technological change. Evolutionary Change  Evolutionary change describes incremental changes that accumulate over a long period of time to alter society on a large scale.  Continuity is a significant element in evolutionary change because of the time it takes for change to take place.  Changes may be triggered by internal factors in society such as the level of TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT, or external factors outside the society, such as WESTERNISATION Examples of Slow Change include: 

Bureaucratisation (macro-to-meso-to micro change) o Society grows and becomes more complex as government and other administrative bodies put systems and processes into place in attempt to manage huge population that they interact with o The outcomes of bureaucratisation are the formation of a distinct hierarchy,

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division of labour and specialisation in a certain area Environmentalism (micro-to-meso-macro change) o Advocates for the protection of the environment has increased over the past century o Attempt to achieve a balance between human activity and earth’s natural cycles o Social movement has brought the concept of ‘sustainability’ into the psyche of people over the world and slow changes customs and practices o Decisions made by corporations and governments have gradually

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incorporated the ideas of catering for the needs of contemporary society Demographic change: o Takes a few generations to see the effect of social change and alterations on population composition, characteristics and structure

Examples of demographic change includes:

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Ageing population, net migration, decreased fertility rates, secularisation, increased life expectancy, increased levels of education, increased income and population growth

As the structure and characteristics of the population slowly change, so do the needs and wants of society Transformative Change  Transformative change may take place in a shorter time frame and is often triggered by technology, strong social movements, rebellions or revolutions  Transformative change occurs concurrently at macro, meso and micro levels by significantly altering social structures and systems in society and abruptly shifting people’s expectations, values and actions. This type of change may be profound, permanent and irreversible  Groups experiencing inequalities in access to political and legal services, economic opportunities and social life can often trigger social movements.  Social movement is about empowered groups taking action to change their circumstances  If people don’t change it can cause revolutions, wars, epidemics Resistance to Change Individuals may resist social change, such as: 1. The pace of innovation: E.g., frustration at the frequent release of updated IT product and software versions 2. Differences in beliefs and values: E.g., denial of legally recognised same-sex marriage 3. Vested interests: E.g. the loss of assets 4. Tradition: E.g., superstitions that prevent them from trying new things 5. Fears of the future: E.g. Removal of monarchies, status depreciation or increased complexity in life Sociologist William Ogburn developed the theory CULTURAL LAG to explain the extended period of time that a culture may take to change. He suggests that even though the development of tangible technologies may indicate a certain direction for change within society, the non-material culture of values, attitudes and norms resist change and therefore takes much longer to catch up with new 4|Page

technology. The difference in uptake of changes create maladjustment or ‘lag time’ in society. Influence of Continuity and Change on the Development of Society A word on continuity… According to, sociologist Orlando Patterson, continuity refers to any object, process or type of event that persists between 2 or more periods of time, entailing something that persists and some mechanism that accounts for persistence.  Identity is based on continuities. The impact of choosing to repeat acts and adopt consistent approaches to issues, ideas and habits combine to form personal identity at micro level.  Continuities indicate a certain level of cooperation and acceptance in society  Staged authenticity is responsible for some continuities in society. Some cultural practices may not be as conventional or genuine as they once were because they are now performed for media exposure and the tourist dollar. o E.g., the Hawaiian welcome dance or the New Zealand Haka  Even if a cultural tradition is thought to be staged, it still provides basic benefits, which may include the promotion of intercultural understanding, an increased awareness of a rich history or a heightened sense of empathy towards, and a greater acceptance of, diversity.  Considered more beneficial to promote staged traditions rather than ignore them; otherwise the practice may disappear entirely Micro Level  Impact of change at micro level will vary depending on individual, peer and family contexts and the extent to which they adopt or resist change  Most researchers believe technological change will have a profound impact on society o Raymond Kurzweil’s theory of accelerating change 

E.g., suggests that whenever a barrier is presented, new technology will be developed to overcome that barrier and that this progress will become faster, as more problems are encountered, technological innovations will take place

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 Social change affects the micro level by altering family structures, influencing peers and creating different gender roles and expectations  A potential impact at micro level is that of ‘future shock’ and ‘information overload’. o Futurist Alvin Toffler (1970s) – Argued that society would experience a massive structural change and that technological advances would be so rapid people would become overwhelmed and feel disconnected from society Meso Level  The process of localisation is a response to globalisation, which a community tailers certain ideas and practices to suit its local context.  Often associated with popular culture and corporate influence, adaptation of goods and services occurs because globally standardises products might not be attractive in every community in the world  Many communities around the world are directing their efforts towards the continuity of their culture Macro Level  Influences continuity and change at a macro level are those who have affected collective behaviour on a large scale Continuities or Changes in: Government Law

Media

Environment

Examples that have influenced the development of Australian Society at Macro Level Apology to the Stolen Generation Signatory to the Kyoto Protocol on climate change Anti-Terrorism Laws No amendment to the preamble of the constitution to acknowledge Indigenous owners of the land as a result of 1999 referendum Freedom of the press Increased access for all users 24-hour news cycle Global Warming Adoption of principles of sustainable development

Impact of Modernisation and Westernisation Westernisation 6|Page

Modernisation

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In Asia a lot of the culture is being washed away e.g. westernised clothing Corporations like Maccas in other countries is very popular. The rise of Western fast food.

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Updated Technology Transit Systems Modern Buildings

Drivers: Transnational Corporations, Technology, Immigration, Media, Global Economy, Cultural Transmission and Free Trade Brakes: Protectionist Policies, Tariffs, Isolationism, Tradition and Conscientious objection Modernisation Modernisation is the process of change from traditional to modern society. To be modernised society, a country would have typically have first gone through the process of industrialisation. Modernisation involves the DECLINE OF TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY AND PRACTICES  Essential specialised institutions such as legislative bodies, education systems and political parties attempt to implement rules and regulations as they negotiate their way through life and fulfil their obligations  As institutions and industries evolve, they demand certain labour skills, so people begin to specialise in smaller tasks that make up the whole.  Modern societies have pursued goals of economic restructuring to ensure they are predominantly engaged in specialised services, which yield more capital than agriculture For example: Modern societies heavily invest in: o Mass Media o Transport o Communication These industries are all important for promoting social mobility; that is, the ability of people to improve their social status

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 Secularisation is when societies move away from strict adherence to a religion, along with its organisations, norms, beliefs, regulations and places of worship  Evidence of secularisation process can be found where the influence and control of religion has declined over time, the result being that the focus of activities, service and institutions are no longer religion-based  Evidence of modernity can also be seen in the rates of urbanisation, technological developments and changing social relationships (such as the rise of de-facto couples and he rates of divorce), and aesthetics; that is symbols such as clothing (emphasis on non-essential fashion items) and architecture (high-rise buildings)  Once a society has demonstrated these characteristics of modernisation, o Sociologists believe it goes through a process of reflective modernisation, which involves reform and reorganisation of social structures. o Provides an opportunity to redress problems created by modernisation and to question political, economic and environmental management using science and technology to better adapt to changes. Technological development, Agricultural Development, Urbanisation, Changes in social structure and political and economic development Westernisation Westernisation describes the process of aspects of the cultures of the UK, Western Europe and North America (USA and Canada) spreading through the world. The term comes from these countries’ geographic locations, which are mainly in the Western hemisphere. The diffusion is accelerated by the process of globalisation and closer links between the countries. Culture is spread rapidly through intergovernmental agreements that facilitate trade and tourism.  The ideas, values, language, fashion, technology, diet, religion, politics, laws and lifestyle of ‘the west’ are widespread, particularly in Asia, Africa and South America.  Western cultural domination in some location means a Western lifestyle is highly sought after

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Theories of Social Change Theories of social change have been developed to help provide a general explanation of changes in society. Theorists base their ideas on facts and observations, and then develop hypotheses and make predictions to test their original ideas. Theories enable to view society from a number of different perspectives Structural Changes Within Society Social Science Philosopher Daniel Little says social structure consists of rules, institutions and practices that are effective in influencing the behaviour of large numbers of people. The very nature of the structure means some people, groups, or institutions have more power than others. Massive structural changes in different societies include: 1. Demographic Shifts: Ageing population in Germany 2. Urbanisation: Mass movement of people from rural to urban areas in Timor-Leste 3. Social Dislocation: Upheaval of some communities in the USA resulting from declining manufacturing 4. Strengthening of Civil Society: Empowering poor and marginalised groups in Lagos 5. Groups of institutions and their subsequent differentiation and specialisation 6. Secularisation: The loss of religious influence in Ireland 7. Conflict and War: WW1 and WW2 Processes and Agents of Social Change Acrony m Proces ses of Social Chang e Examp les

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SocialCultural Processes

Technological Processes

Economic Processes

Environment al processes

Political Processes

Advances in education Urbanisati on

Bioengineeri ng Nanotechnolo gy

Capitalism Globalisatio n and shifts in power

Climate Change Scarcity of resources.

Democratisati on. Changing levels of

E-commerce Desertificatio n. scaling back Sustainability of pensions . and social security payments. Off-shore processing. Free Trade agreements. Industrialisati on. Consumeris m. Social-change theories have been developed in an attempt to tackle the Growth of Individualis m Ageing Population s Immigration Status of Women Social Mobility

Developing alternative energy sources Cyberterrorism Internet access Privacy Weapons trade Disease Control

freedom and autonomy. Privatisation Colonialism Bureaucratisa tion World Order Domestic Policies Geopolitical conflict.

numerous

processes and agents of social change. Directions of Change Social Change Theorists are also concerned with the directions and patterns of change. Three major patterns or directions of change, as suggested in sociology source at the University of Qubec in Montreal include: 1. Linear Patterns, suggested in evolutionary theory, claim that change is cumulative, non-repetitive and linear that it involves the transition from small, undifferentiated societies with homogenous culture to large societies with a high degree of structural differentiation and heterogenous culture 2. Cyclical Patterns, imply change is repetitive, which can explain the rise and fall of civilisations, but also political and economic cycles’ 3. Dialectical Patterns are a combination of the previous two patterns, making a spiral pattern where short-term repetitive change, but llong-term directional change, are evident Key Features of Social Theories Four Prominent Social Theories: Conflict, Evolutionary, Functionalist and interactionist Theory Theorist 10 | P a g e

Conflict Karl Marx, Max Webber, Friedrich Engles, Ludwig

Gumplowicz, George Simmel How social change and are derived from conflict resulting from inequalities and differences in power in any given society Level Macro Assumpt - Change and conflict are normal in society - Inequalities in power are built into all social structures ions - Competition over scarce resources rather than consensus is part of all social groups - Human interaction results in conflict - Abrupt and revolutionary change occurs as a result of conflict Main - Society is made up of individuals and groups who compete Points for scarce resources and power. Competition is an inherent characteristic of humans, according to authors of Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, Michael Harlambos and Martin Holborn - There are inequalities between social structures such as religious groups; therefore, they each have competing agenda and priorities - Classes in society exist; wealthy ruling class (bourgeoise) and working class (proletariat) - Encyclopedia of Social Theory: Ruling class derives its power from owning and controlling resources. Ruling class is able to maintain and build upon resources, gains power and is ultimately self-serving in its actions with no intentions of benefiting society or others. It uses power to influence society and to suppress and exploit the working class - The working class supports the ruling class, but because it lacks resources, and therefore power, it is subject to pressure and constraint imposed by the ruling class - The struggle for power and control of resources reaches a breaking point, at which time revolution will occur and the working class will overthrow ruling class - Sociologist Ian Robertson – States that change is abrupt and convulsive conflict wou...