Summary Social Psychology - Chapter 1,3-4,5,7-10,14 PDF

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Chapter 1,3-4,5,7-10,14...

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Social Psychology Chapter 1: Introduction to Social Psychology  

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Answers to various questions come from personal experience, we learn from interaction. In some instances information that we are told, contradict each other: o People that are similar will like each other and so will people that are dissimilar (i.e. opposites attract). Social Psychology: defined as the systematic study of the nature and causes of human social behavior. o Focus on human social behavior o Causal relations among behavior are important building blocks for theory. o Social psychologists use formal research methodologies.

Core Concerns for Social Psychologists: 1. Impact that one individual has on another individual o Communication with others may influence understanding of the social world o Influences by others can change one’s beliefs and attitudes o Individuals are affected by others actions (altruism vs. aggression or cooperation vs. competition). 2. Impact that one group has on individual members o Groups include: family, clubs, work, school o Influence by establishing norms and rules. o Results in conformity (adjusts behavior in relation to group norms) o Long-term influence through socialization: enables groups to regulate what members learn—play roles in the larger society. 3. Impact that one individual has on the group to which they belong. o Individuals contribute to group productivity—leadership and initiative o Influence by innovate and changing group structure and procedures. 4. Impact that one group has on another group o Groups may be friendly or hostile towards one another o Relations between groups may entail stereotypes o Intergroup conflict may lead to tension and hostility (ex: between two teenage gangs). 5. Relation to other fields o Social psychology is often viewed as an interdisciplinary field related to sociology and psychology. o Social psychologists working in the sociological area rely on sample surveys and observation to gain data. o Social psychologists working in the psychological area rely on laboratory experimentation

Theoretical Perspectives in Social Psychology      1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Theory: Interrelated propositions that organizes and explains a set of observed phenomena. o Postulates causal relations between variables, makes predictions Middle-Range Theories: Narrow-frame focused that identify the conditions that produce a specific social behavior. Scientifically-causal in nature (related to cause and effect). Theoretical Perspectives: General explanations for a wide range of behaviors make assumptions about human nature. Theoretical perspectives provide value for applicability across various situations. Central theoretical perspectives: Role theory Reinforcement theory Cognitive theory Symbolic-interaction theory Evolutionary theory

Role Theory  

Behavior is guided by role expectations and what the expectations of others are o Ex: anyone that holds a job is performing a role. States that behavior being carried out is simply a person’s role being performed.

Propositions to role theory 1. 2. 3. 4.

People spend their lives participating in groups and organizations. Within groups people perform certain positions Each positon entails a role, a set of functions performed by the person for the group. Expectations are formalized as norms, how a person should behavior. Proper behavior results in rewards and deviant behavior in punishment. 5. Individuals perform roles in accordance with the norms, are conformists. 6. Group members check individual members behaviors to see if it is in accordance with group norms. Impact of roles   

Individuals have information about the roles they perform Change in behavior is required to redefine roles—either through change in expectations or shifting to an entirely new role Roles also determine a person’s behavior and attitudes. Change in role=change in behavior and attitude

Limitations to Role theory   

Limitation of deviant behavior —goes against the norms. Contradicts that people are conformist and deviate behavior violates roles. May occur due to ignorance of the norms or incompatible expectations from several people.

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Does not explain how roles came to be or how role expectations change.

Reinforcement Theory        

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Social behavior is shaped by external events, more likely to perform a behavior if followed by something pleasurable or removal of something aversive. Less likely to perform a behavior to followed by something aversive or removal of something pleasurable. Standing place within psychology in relation to the works of Skinner, Thorndike and Pavlov. Behavior is determined by external events that are observable not internal states. Any event that leads to an alteration or change in behavior is called a stimulus. Reinforcement is any favorable outcome that results from a response; reinforcement strengthens the response—that is, it increases the probability it will be repeated. Responses that are not reinforced tend to disappear. Conditioning: A contingency is established between emitting a response and receiving reinforcement, if a response is reinforced then the connection between response and reinforcement is strengthened. Stimulus discrimination: A person learns the exact conditions under which a response will be reinforced. o Ex: Karl learned to discriminate between stimulus conditions (bell vs. no bell), and he knows that reinforcement (food) is obtained only by making the response in the presence of a specific stimulus (bell).

Social Learning Theory: 

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A person (learner) can acquire new responses by simply observing the behavior of another (the model) through imitation. o Learner neither performs a behavior nor receives any reinforcement. o What behavior is performed can also be influenced by consequences. SLT states that individuals acquire new behavior through conditioning and imitation.

Social Exchange Theory 

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Explain stability and changes in relationships between individuals, individuals have the freedom to choose and often in situations they must choose among alternatives—that entail rewards and costs. Individuals are hedonistic and attempt to maximize rewards and minimize costs. o Choose actions that provide good profits (rewards) and avoid one’s that have poor profits. Social relationships—exchanges of goods and services among people. Compares profits of one relationship (current) to the profits available in alternative relationships. Comparison level of alternatives: The level of outcomes available in the best alternative relationship. People most likely to stay in a relationship when the rewards are high, costs and low and there are very few available alternatives. Equity: When people feel that the rewards they deserve are proportional to the costs they bear.

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People who are in a relationship, that feel that the relationship is inequitable will relocate costs and rewards to make the relationship equitable.

Limitations of Reinforcement Theory  

Reacting to environmental stimuli and behavior not based on imaginative/creative thought. Ignores other criteria—states that people act as hedonistic individuals (can’t explain altruism)

Cognitive Theory     

Mental activities are important factors that determine social behavior (cognitive processes) Cognitive processes—perception, judgment, problem solving Link between stimulus and response is not automatic but involves cognitive processes that intervene between external stimuli and behavioral response. Influenced by Koffka, Kohler and Gestalt—people understand the meaning of a single stimulus by viewing it in the overall context. People actively use cognitive processes to select relevant stimuli and ignore non-relevant stimuli.

Cognitive Structures and Schema  

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Refers to organization among cognitions (concepts and beliefs) Schemas: Special cognitive structures that make sense of complex information. o Important in social relations as they help interpret the environment efficiently. o Schemas’ help us remember information better and process it faster. o Also involved in individuals attitudes towards stereotypes and discrimination. Principle of cognitive consistency—changes that occur in a person’s cognition when challenged/under attack.

Limitations of Cognitive Theory  

Oversimplification of cognitive processes and how people process information. Can’t be directly observed (must be inferred)

Symbolic Interaction Theory        

Places importance on the interaction between the individual and society. Person’s behavior is created through give and take during his or her interaction with other people. People can only communicate effectively with one another if they assign similar meanings to an object. An object takes on meaning only in relation to a person’s plans. Symbolic Interaction Theory views people as proactive and goal seeking. To establish cooperation with other people meaning of things must be shared and consensual. Role taking—individual imagines how she/he looks from another person’s perspective. Emphasizes that a person acts not only towards others but can also act for the self. Self-Identity—for consensus to be present there needs to be agreement with respect to the identity of each individual. o Social order rests in part on self-control

Limitations of Symbolic Interaction Theory   

Overemphasizes rational, conscious thought and deemphasizes unconscious or emotional states. The individual is depicted as a specific personality type—concerned with meeting other’s standards. Too much emphasis on consensus and cooperation and downplays conflict.

Evolutionary Psychology  

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Roots of social behavior are present in our genes and link the psychological and sociological to the behavioral. Individuals have a predisposition towards certain behaviors and our genetic material pass on behaviors through reproduction. o Mate selection—men value physical attractiveness and beauty and women value ability to provide resources for herself and the offspring. o Mate poaching—for those already involved in another relationship but have attractive/desirable qualities. Contradiction for evolutionary theory—doesn’t explain altruistic or selfless behavior. People are generally most likely to help those to whom they are genetically related to. o Adults more likely to abuse step-children vs. biological children. Provides a unifying principle between social learning theory and social learning theory Limitation: observes some characteristics of the social world and creates an explanation for it based on supposed genetic contributions.

A Comparison of Perspectives 

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Role Theory: o Focus on roles and norms and expectations for each role, defined by group members. o Attitude change that results from occupying roles o Assumes that people are largely conformist Reinforcement Theory: o Observable behavior in relation to relation between stimulus and response. o Learning based on the impact of rewards and punishments o How people act and perform are determined largely by patterns of reinforcement. Cognitive Theory: o Importance of schemas and cognitive structures. o Response to social stimuli and factors that produce changes in beliefs + attitudes Symbolic Interaction Theory: o Focus on self and role taking o People are conscious self-monitoring beings who use role taking to achieve tier goals through interactions with others. Evolutionary Theory: o Focus on genetic transmission of behavioral tendencies. o People behaviors shaped by natural selection and perpetuated by the genetic code.

Social Psychology Chapter 3: Self and Self Presentation The Self and Object Action 

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Self-Schema or Self-Concept: Structure of cognitions or thoughts that we have about ourselves. o Reflexive behavior: the process of engaging in self-evaluation, self-perception, self-communication… o Active aspect of self is I and the object of self-action is labelled me-actions are guided by an internal dialogue with the self. In order to engage in self-reflection individuals must: 1. Develop the ability to differentiate themselves from others 2. Learn to view their actions through others eyes 3. Learn to use a symbol system or language for inner-thought.

Self-Differentiation 

To perceive the self as an object of action we must be able to recognize ourselves o Infants not born with this ability—develops at around 18 months o Children need to both discriminate themselves from others and view themselves as social objects (learning language).

Role Taking  

Process of occupying the position of another person and viewing the self from their perspective—this allows the child to respond reflexively. Tie between role taking and language development (use of pronouns I and you)—the use of these requires taking the position of the self and the other simultaneously.

Social Origins of the Self  

Self-schema is modified by our relationships and feedback from others. Looking-Glass Self: Self origins are social and influenced by significant others (people who are most influential)—parents, teachers, friends.

The Play and the Game 

Refers to social experience leading to emergence of the self o Play Stage: children imitate actions of those around them/meaningful roles, can’t recognize that roles are intertwined (ex: mail carrier can be a parent as well). o Game Stage: children can imagine viewpoints of several people simultaneously.

Generalized Other 

Refers to the concept of attitudes and expectations held by members of organized group with which children/individuals interact (what group expects, what others say, societal expectations) 1

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Over time children internalize views of generalized others and integrate them into selfconcepts.

Online Communication and the Self  

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Computer-mediated-communication (CMC)—email, internet messaging, social networks Self-concept is influenced by feedback from others o Media does not provide non-verbal cues (body language, facial expressions) o The online self can be called digital self The digital self is: inwardly oriented, retractable, multiplied and is a narrative/story (presentation is consistent). Digital self is not constrained by geographic location/institution —connect with people all over the world.

Self-Evaluation 

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Views of ourselves that we perceive from others is either positive or negative o Favorable judgements of the person result in positive self-concepts and unfavorable judgements result in negative self-concepts Evaluations are also formed on how well we live up to the standards we set for ourselves.

Identities: The Self-we-Know    

Identities: Refers to the meanings attached to the self by oneself and others. An identity is a concept of a self in a specific role—called Role Identity The self is linked through society specifically through the roles they play and roles leave room for adjustment and improvising. Each person derives different things from a role, even if people occupy similar or the same role.

Social Identities   

Social Identity: Definition of the self in terms of the characteristics of a group (ex: gender, race, nationality, sexual orientation). Social groups are defined in part by reference to other groups and interaction with other members is not necessary to belong. Belonging to a group often results in salience and thereby an accentuation effect— emphasis on perceived differences and negative evaluations of outgroup members.

The Adoption of Role and Social Identities 

Self-schemas formed by adopting identities, in part influenced by culture (individualistic vs. collectivist). o Individualistic: focus on individual achievement (captain, leader, outstanding player) o Collectivistic: focuses on group welfare promotion (family, ethnicity, Catholic— religion). 2

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Adopting a social identity involves defining the self as a member of a social category Role identity on the other hand involves behavior conforming to a role.

Reflected Appraisal  

Person bases their self-schema on the reactions they perceive from others during social interaction. Perceived reaction from others are stronger influences on self-concepts than actual reactions. o People don’t always give honest feedback about their reactions. o Feedback that we receive is inconsistent and may be contrary. o Feedback is ambiguous and difficult to interpret (ex: facial expressions)

Identity and Multiracial Heritage   

Social identity based on racial heritage is also an important part of self-schema. Some racial identities—Black, White, Asian are easier to decipher while others are ambiguous Factors that influence a person’s identity: culture, food, celebrated holidays.

The Situated Self 

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Refers to aspects of ourselves than come to awareness/matter the most in a certain situation. Subset of identities, concepts and qualities of ourselves that we know in a situation. Working-Self Concept: Refers to the current/active, accessible self-representation.

Identities: The Self-We-Enact Identities and Behavior   

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If members of a particular group agree on meanings of particular identities/behavior they can regulate behavior properly. If members do not establish shared meaning there is difficulty regulating identity. Identity Control Theory: An actor uses the social meaning of his/her identity as a reference to assess what is occurring in a certain situation. Other actors and the situation have shared meaning. Shared meaning of an identity is like a thermostat—if reflected appraisals or situational elements are inconsistent with an identity an actor will attempt to restore balance. Social identities are associated with categories/groups and subject to stereotypes o Stereotype threat: one is at risk to conforming to a negative stereotype associated with a group of belonging.

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Choosing an Identity to Enact The Hierarchy of Identities     

Role identities are organized according to salience and importance to self-schema The more salient an identity is to us the more we choose to perform activities that express that identity. We are more likely to perceive situations that offer opportunities to act on salient identities. We are more active in seeking opportunities to enact salient identities. We conform to role expectations more for identities that we consider salient/important.

Social Networks, Need for Support and Social Opportunities   

Social relationships depend on enacting an identity, the importance of the relationship is based on the importance we give the identity. We enact identities that need the most support when we have been challenged. In social situations the identity we choose to enact depends on the opportunities that the situation offers—profitable enactment.

Identities as Sources of Consistency Salience Hierarchy    

Most salient identities provide consistent styles of behavior that lead to unity of behavior (untied sense of self). Hierarchy allows us to choose which situations to enter and which to avoid. Hierarchy influences consistency of our behavior in situation and across time. Identity Crisis: When life transitions change roles or require a person to adopt new roles (ex: retirement/adolescence) it may lead to confusion about the unity of sense of self.

Self-Verification Strategies  