The role of reading self-concept and home literacy practices in fourth grade reading comprehension PDF

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Read Writ (2009) 22:261–276 DOI 10.1007/s11145-007-9112-8 The role of reading self-concept and home literacy practices in fourth grade reading comprehension Tami Katzir Æ Nonie K. Lesaux Æ Young-Suk Kim Published online: 18 January 2008
Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008 Abstract This study...

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Read Writ (2009) 22:261–276 DOI 10.1007/s11145-007-9112-8

The role of reading self-concept and home literacy practices in fourth grade reading comprehension Tami Katzir Æ Nonie K. Lesaux Æ Young-Suk Kim

Published online: 18 January 2008
Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008

Abstract This study examined the relationships among reading comprehension, reading self-concept, and home literacy environment (HLE) in a sample (n = 67) of fourth grade children enrolled in an urban school district. Children’s reading comprehension, word reading, and verbal ability were assessed using standardized measures. Reading self-concept was assessed with a child-administered survey that is comprised of three subscales (i.e., competence in reading, perception of ease with reading, attitude towards reading). Information on child and family literacy practices was collected via a questionnaire administered to parents of participating children. Bivariate correlations and multiple regression analyses demonstrated that all three reading self-concept subscales were positively related to reading comprehension after controlling for verbal ability and word reading skills, and aspects of HLE were positively related to aspects of reading self-concept. The findings support the inclusion of psychosocial and family literacy measures in future studies designed to investigate the process of reading comprehension for children beyond the primary grades. Keywords Home literacy environment
Reading comprehension
Reading self-concept

Introduction As with other developmental processes, children’s reading comprehension develops in a rich context of direct and indirect factors that influence the process. Effective reading comprehension draws upon individual factors, such cognitive and linguistic skills and psychosocial perceptions of ability, as well as contextual factors, such as T. Katzir
N. K. Lesaux (&)
Y.-S. Kim Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, 14 Appian Way, 319 Larsen Hall, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA e-mail: [email protected]

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environmental influences, which include both home and school literacy environments (for relevant reviews see Alexander & Jetton, 2000; RAND, 2002; Snow, 2003). The ecological theory of human development, focused on the interaction among individual and contextual influences on development, has proven very useful as a framework for the study of literacy development in young children (Wiegel, Martin, & Bennet, 2005). However, the focus on young children has resulted in an emphasis on applying this model to children’s word-level reading skills and understanding of print. Given the complexity of reading comprehension and the individual and contextual factors that influence this process (for a review see RAND, 2002), this ecological approach is similarly appropriate for the study of reading comprehension. In the present study, we use the ecological approach to examine contributions of linguistic and reading skills, reading self concept, and child and family literacy practices to the reading comprehension skills of fourth grade children. What follows is a discussion of the need to investigate reading comprehension using a multi-variate design with attention to individual and contextual influences, and a review of related research.

A multi-variate approach to investigating reading comprehension Research with young children suggests that the development of early literacy skills, such as phonological processing and letter knowledge and positive attitudes towards reading, are influenced by interactions around literacy in school and home settings (Baker & Scher, 2002; Burgess, 2002; Weigel et al., 2005). For example, with a sample of 67 first graders, parents’ identification of pleasure as a reason for reading, predicted their child’s motivation for reading (Baker & Scher, 2002). This multi-variate framework that recognizes the inextricable link between child characteristics and contextual factors has been useful for studying young children’s language and literacy development. While research on older children’s reading development, particularly reading comprehension, has generally not adopted such an approach, it is warranted. By fourth grade, children must read to learn across a variety of texts and settings, and thus, the demands of reading differ markedly from those in the primary grades (Chall, 1983). Foundational skills, such as accurate and automatic decoding are necessary but not sufficient for creating and extracting meaning from text. For effective comprehension and to increase one’s reading proficiency, readers must be able to draw on well-developed vocabulary and background knowledge as well as significant experiences with print while simultaneously maintaining a disposition towards reading that results in both a positive attitude and a perception of self-efficacy (Guthrie & Wigfield, 1999). Because the majority of research in this area has focused on cognitive and linguistic factors in reading, particularly the single component skill of decoding (see Cain, Oakhill, & Bryant, 2004 for a discussion), a nuanced understanding of the unique contribution that different skills and factors make to reading comprehension is relatively limited. Many cognitive and linguistic skills have been directly linked to reading comprehension outcomes (Katzir et al., 2006; for a review see RAND, 2002). These skills include word recognition, verbal comprehension, phonological processing (e.g., Nation & Snowling, 2004; Stanovich & Siegel, 1994), orthographic

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processing (e.g., Castles & Coltheart, 1993; Cunningham, Perry, & Stanovich, 2001), and processing speed (Joshi & Aaron, 2001; Katzir et al., 2006; Johnston & Kirby, 2006). However, a review of studies focusing on the above mentioned processes suggest that even a combination of all processes explains only partial variance in reading comprehension. Depending upon the study and the participant characteristics, the amount of variance explained by these lower level processes range from 15% to 70% (Katzir et al., 2006). In order to explain variability in children’s reading comprehension skills in addition to that accounted for by cognitive and linguistic skills, there has been a shift towards an approach that includes psychosocial factors, such as children’s perceptions about their academic ability, their attitudes towards reading (Chapman & Tunmer, 1995, 2003; Fletcher et al., 2002; Lepola, Salonen, & Vauras, 2000), and the value that children attach to their reading (Baker & Scher, 2002). When children perceive that they have the ability to accomplish a particular task, they tend to perform at higher levels and be motivated to select increasingly challenging tasks (Dweck, 1999; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Jacobs, Lanza, Osgood, Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Skinner, Zimmer-Gembeck & Connell, 1998). Thus, the way in which children appraise their reading capabilities is expected to relate to motivational aspects, such as interest and persistence in reading, which in turn relates to their reading achievement (Baker & Scher, 2002; Chapman & Tunmer, 1995; 2003; Jacobs et al., 2002). Self- perception is a broad construct; thus, recent research has focused on selfperception and attitudes towards reading (Baker & Scher, 2002; Chapman & Tunmer, 1995). In their research, Chapman and Tunmer (1995) differentiate between three subcomponents of reading self-concept: perceptions of competence in reading, perceptions of difficulty with reading, and attitudes towards reading. They have found that in the early grades, perceptions of difficulty are related to reading ability. However, by grade 4, perceptions of difficulty and competence are significantly related to reading comprehension. These relations have been established via bivariate correlations; yet, their relative contribution to reading comprehension ability has not been examined after controlling for important language and decoding skills using techniques that model variance. Building on previous research, the present study seeks to address that gap in the research. For example, in a related study, Conlon and her colleagues (2006) found that for a sample of 11–13 year-olds, attitudes towards reading explained variance in word reading skills and reading comprehension in addition to that explained by orthographic and phonological processing, rapid visual naming and nonverbal ability. Word reading skills, gender, family history of reading difficulties, and children’s nonverbal ability accounted for 25% of the variance in learners’ reading comprehension. An additional 19% were explained by orthographic, phonological and rapid visual naming. Interestingly, children’s perceptions of their reading competence and their attitudes towards reading explained an additional 8% of the variance in their word reading skills. For the reading comprehension outcome, children’s perceptions of their reading competence and their attitudes towards reading again explained close to 8% of the variance after controlling for the above mentioned variables (e.g., family history of reading difficulties, orthographic,

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phonological, and rapid visual naming). Conlon’s study was one of the first to expand the theoretical framework by simultaneously investigating the contribution of linguistic and psychosocial factors to children’s reading comprehension. In this study, we continue to build on this framework to investigate the relationships among cognitive and linguistic skills, psychosocial factors related to reading self concept, and fourth graders’ reading comprehension; further, we expand the framework to include the role that contextual factors, such as child and family literacy practices, play in the older reader’s comprehension.

The influence of child and family literacy practices on children’s reading It is well documented that home literacy experiences prior to formal literacy instruction are important for the development of a number of pre-reading and oral reading abilities, including phonological sensitivity and understanding of print (Burgess, 2002; Raz & Bryant, 1990; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). For example, Raz and Bryant (1990) found that the number of books a child had access to and the frequency of library visits each accounted for variance in rhyme detection, after controlling for age and IQ. While the great majority of these studies have focused on the influence of home literacy environment (HLE) and family literacy practices on young children’s literacy development, the present study seeks to expand this line of research to include older readers and to consider child literacy practices in this investigation. In addition to the influence of home literacy practices on children’s reading outcomes, recent research also suggests that these practices can influence attitudes towards reading. For example, parents’ identification of pleasure as a reason for reading, predicted first grader’s motivation for reading (Baker & Scher, 2002). However, the reason contextual factors influence children’s outcomes may be more complex than they appear on the surface. For example, the frequency of shared book reading and parental leisure reading habits co-vary with socioeconomic status (Nino, 1990; Raz & Bryant, 1990). Similarly, both preschool and early childhood measures of socioeconomic status and HLE were predictive of the school-administered reading achievement test for children aged 8–10 (Molfese, Modglin, & Molfese, 2003). Moreover, while often discussed and measured as such, HLE is not a unitary construct. It is a construct that represents interrelated factors, such as attitudes towards literacy, resources, and family activities, and may differentially influence different aspects of literacy development (Burgess, 2002). As such, Burgess suggested differentiating among factors, such as income, education, occupation, and parental characteristics, when investigating the HLE. In addition, HLE consists of a number of activities which children participate in or observe as well as activities in which parents actively engage in. For example, a child could observe a parent’s reading habits or participate in a shared parent–child reading time. However, even reading with a parent can be further broken down to specific literacy activities that a parent engages with her child. For example, Senechal and LeFevre (2001) found that story reading was related to vocabulary and comprehension skills, and teaching reading about reading related to early literacy skills. Expanding upon this line of research, in a study of home and child-care influences on literacy, Weigel and

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colleagues (2005) differentiated among parental demographics, parental literacy habits, parental activities, and parental reading beliefs in relation to different literacy outcomes. In addition, factors such as parental attitudes towards the importance of literacy, including parental motivation and parental interest in literacy were studied by Baker and Scher (2002). Thus, measures to investigate this multifaceted construct include questions about parents’ literacy levels, reading materials in the home, parent reports of children’s literacy behaviors, and parents’ reading activities (Burgess, 2002; Rashid, Morris, & Sevick, 2005; Saracho, 1997; Senechal, LeFevre, Hudson, & Lawson, 1996).

Present study Based on previous research, it is plausible to hypothesize that child and family literacy practices will not only enhance the child’s literacy skills but also his or her enthusiasm and sense of competence towards reading. Yet, there is a need to investigate how selfconcept and home literacy practices are related to reading comprehension with children beyond the primary grades, a time when analyzing and comprehending connected text is central to academic success. In addition, in this area of research, there is a need to use a triangular approach that combines standardized measures of reading along with measures that tap constructs related to reading, such as child and family literacy practices and children’s orientation and disposition towards reading. Thus, the present study was designed to examine the role of child and family literacy practice and reading self-concept in fourth graders’ reading comprehension, controlling for word reading skills and vocabulary ability. This study was guided by three research questions: (1) Are child and family literacy practices associated with fourth graders’ reading comprehension skills? (2) Is reading self-concept related to reading comprehension skills? If so, which dimensions of reading self-concept? (3) Are child and family literacy practices related to children’s reading self-concept?

Method Participants The participating fourth grade children (N = 67) were enrolled in one urban school in a small northeast U.S. district. In order to recruit children for participation in the study, fourth grade teachers were asked to refer students without any learning difficulties or disabilities or a designation of Limited English Proficient (LEP). Based on a records review and confirmation with the school principal, none of the children were officially diagnosed as having a learning disability. None of the participating children were receiving special services for language or learning difficulties. In addition, none of the children qualified for the district’s after-school program for children needing extra academic support. The sample was balanced for gender (33 girls; 34 boys), had a mean age of 9.44 years (range 9–11 years), and was racially diverse (60% Caucasians, 18% African Americans, 15% Asians, and

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Table 1 Descriptive statistics for measures (N = 67) Variable

Mean (SD)

Min–Max

Reading comprehension

GSRT reading comprehension

Reading self-concept

Perception of ease with reading

3.48 (0.74)

1.40–4.70

Perception of reading competence

3.68 (0.62)

2.00–5.00

Attitude towards reading

4.13 (0.73)

1.90–5.00

Family literacy practicesa

Child’s literacy practices

93.00 (21)

54–146

-.009 (.84)

-2.39–.78

Family literacy teaching & help

-.03 (.76)

-2.13–1.03

Frequency of library visits

2.42 (.94)

Family literacy practices Home literacy environment

1–5

.00 (.79)

-2.20–1.03

-0.01 (.51)

-1.44–1.29

Verbal ability

Verbal IQ

9.20 (3.14)

1–18

Word reading

TOWRE

102.09 (15.73)

54.00–138.00

a

These are standardized scores (M = 0, SD = 1) except for frequency of library visits

7% Hispanic). The school where the study was conducted has approximately 65% of children qualifying for free or reduced-price lunch.

Measures Outcome Reading comprehension The Gray Silent Reading Test (Wiederhold & Blalock, 2000) was used as a measure of reading comprehension. For this norm-referenced, standardized test (M = 100, SD = 15) the participants were asked to read narrative and expository text and answer multiple choice questions about them. As presented in Table 1, children in the sample mean was 93 points (SD = 21). Consistent with research on the normal distribution of reading ability (e.g., National Reading Panel, 2000; Francis et al., 1996), 25% of children scored one standard deviation below the national mean on this measure.

Primary question predictors Reading self-concept The Reading Self-Concept Scale (Chapman & Tunmer, 1995) was used to measure children’s ratings of their reading self-concept. For this measure, children are asked to respond to each question on a 5-point scale that ranges from 1 (No, never) to 5 (Yes, always).1 The instrument measures three aspects of reading self-concept and yields three subscales: competence in reading (Competence subscale; e.g., ‘Do you think you read well?’), perceptions of ease with reading (Ease with reading subscale; e.g., ‘Do you make lots of mistakes in 1

Because this Likert scale was reversed for the Difficulty subscale in Chapman & Tunmer’s study, in this study we rephrased it as ‘ease with reading.’

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reading?’), and attitudes toward reading (Attitude subscale; e.g., ‘Is it fun for you to read books?’). This instrument contains 30 items, 10 items per subscale. Results in Table 1 show that children in this sample had positive attitudes toward reading, on average (M = 4.13), and tended to feel competent about reading (M = 3.68). Child and family literacy practices In order to assess child and family literacy practices, each participating child’s parents were asked to complete a questionnaire. This 20-item questionnaire was based on the home literacy questionnaire developed by Gerber and his colleagues for their study on the development of reading for children from Spanish-speaking homes (Denney, English, Gerber, Leafstedt, & Ruz, 2001; Jimenez & Gerber, 2003, Unpublished manuscript). Similar to the questionnaire use by Wiegel and colleagues (2005), this questionnaire focuses on parental demographics, parental literacy habits, parent English language proficiency, parental activities around literacy with their child(ren) and their child’s reading habits. Based on theoretical consideration given previous research in this area, and Principal Components Analysis for data reduction we created five composites (see appendix) from the 20 items: home literacy environment (e.g., total number of books in the home)...