Unification OF Germany AND Italy PDF

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UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND ITALYINTRODUCTIONWe talked about the Vienna Peace Treaty and the various alliances that were formed after the Vienna Conference in the previous Unit. We spent a long time discussing the Conference's provisions and their significance for European nations. We will discuss th...

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UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND ITALY INTRODUCTION

We talked about the Vienna Peace Treaty and the various alliances that were formed after the Vienna Conference in the previous Unit. We spent a long time discussing the Conference's provisions and their significance for European nations. We will discuss the unification of Italy and Germany in this unit. The Unit will shed light on people's aspirations in the wake of nationalism's spirit, as well as the leaders' respective roles in uniting their country.

UNIFICATION OF GERMANY

Germany was made up of a number of princely states that were constantly fighting for supremacy. The French Revolution's ideas had sparked nationalist fervour among Germans. However, the Congress of Vienna's decision shattered all hopes of German unification. All nationalist aspirations were stifled by strong reactionary measures, and the ousted princes were restored to their states. As a result, the old local divisions were restored, and Austria gained control of the German states as well.

Metternich and his Policy Metternich was a key figure at the 1815 Vienna Peace Conference, which aimed to keep Europe safe from French and Russian intrusion. He despised the Revolution and, as a result, any reform movement. He made every effort to put an end to any struggle or movement for self-determination. He advocated for the return of the old regime. He developed a political concept that served as the foundation for the postwar settlement between European powers. From 1814 to 1848, Clemont von Metternich was Europe's most influential conservative statesman. He not only ruled the Austrian Empire, but he also dictated policies to the German Confederation and the Italian states, and through the Concert

of Europe, he directly influenced the pattern of international relations. Some historians credit him with inventing the "Metternich System," a method of working. Metternich's efforts to maintain the 1815 settlement through an alliance of European monarchies and comprehensive repression of nationalism and liberalism within states were represented by this system. The significance of the Metternich System, of course, reflected Metternich's significant role in Europe.

German Confederation

The German Confederation was formed in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna by the powers of Central Europe to replace the Holy Roman Empire, which had been dissolved in 1806. It was decided at the time of its founding that the 'German question' would be handled in favour of the Habsburg Monarchy. The German question could be addressed in two ways: one, by uniting the German states, including those parts of the Habsburg monarchy that had been part of the Holy Roman Empire or had a German population, and the other, by forming a federation that excluded the Habsburg dominions. While the former, known as the 'greater German solution,' favoured Catholic-Habsburg dominance, the latter, known as the'smaller German solution,' favoured the Protestant-Prussian Hohenzollerns. Despite the fact that the second model won out during German unification in the second half of the nineteenth century, the Congress of Vienna pursued the greater German solution. The German Confederation was essentially a federation of sovereign states that spanned the former Reich's territories. The Austrian delegate presided over the Federal Assembly (Bundestag) in Frankfurt am Main. The formation of the Confederation delayed the resolution of the 'German question' for nearly two generations, and it was not until Austria's defeat at Königgrätz in 1866 that a decisive shift in policy occurred.

The Frankfurt Assembly

Following the February Revolution in France in 1830, sporadic revolts erupted in Germany. In the years 1848 and 1849, Germany's liberals made a concerted effort to

achieve national unity. At Frankfurt, they convened a National Parliament. The sovereigns of the leading states, Austria and Prussia, however, rejected this. In May of 1851, the old confederation was resurrected, and its sessions were resumed. Though hopes for German unification were dashed, it did produce some positive outcomes.  It was realised that German unity would be impossible to achieve as long as Austria remained the supreme authority in their country and ruled through the Federal Diet. It was also realised that unless the German Princes were persuaded of the importance of German unity, the entire reform effort would fail.  Another lesson learned from the 1848 failure was that German unification could not be achieved by a popular movement without the Princes' guidance. If Austria were to be expelled from Germany, a new leader would have to be found to rule the country and fulfil the nationalists' hopes. Prussia appeared to be the best candidate for such a position. Despite her betrayal on two occasions, she was regarded as the natural leader of German unity. It was natural for people to have faith in her because she had fought Napoleon Bonaparte heroically and her armies had fought valiantly for the whole of Germany. Even her economic clout qualified her for political power. She had even drafted a constitution and established a legislature. Patriots and nationalists in Prussia hoped that this would lead to their unification. The international situation was also in Prussia's favour. The Crimean War had soured Russia's relationship with Austria, turning her into a Prussian ally. In 1861, William I (1797-1888) succeeded Frederick William IV as King of Prussia, ushering in a new era in Prussia. He was 64 years old at the time. He desired for Prussia to become Germany's leader. He had spent his entire life in the army, which he had devoted himself to. He believed that Prussia's fate was in the hands of her army. As a result, he appointed capable individuals such as Von Moltke as Chief of the General Staff, Von Roon as War Minister, and Bismarck as Minister-President. Even appropriations were demanded by William I, but he was denied by parliament. It was suggested to the king that he abolish parliament entirely. He didn't do so, however, because he had sworn to

uphold the constitution. Prussia was to be the most powerful nation in Europe, according to William I.

Bismarck and Modern Germany

On September 23, 1862, Otto Von Bismarck was appointed Minister-President of Prussia at a critical juncture in the country's history. His services were enlisted to subdue and control the Parliament, which had rejected the king's request for a budget to strengthen the Prussian army. Bismarck believed that the only way to bring Germany together was to wage war. As a result, he was completely in agreement with William I on the issue of army reform. He realised that in order for Prussia to lead Germany's unification, her armies needed to be not only strong, but also more powerful than her adversaries'. Diplomatic preparations had to be made as well. Bismarck was successful in preventing King William I of Prussia from attending the Congress of German Princesses, effectively sabotaging Austria's attempt to consolidate her leadership of Germany by enacting some federal reforms. The realisation of Bismarck's grand plan, the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership, necessitated a war with Austria. With the reintroduction of the SchleswigHolstein question in 1863, the opportunity arose. Schleswig and Holstein were two duchies in northern Germany, on the Danish Peninsula. The Duke of the two duchies was the King of Denmark. The duchies, on the other hand, had their own laws and institutions that the Danish king had to follow. Schleswig was a Danish fief, while Holstein was a German Confederation member. These duchies had a mixture of Danish and German populations. The Danes wanted the duchies to become part of Denmark, while the Germans wanted to become part of the German Confederation. The king of Denmark had attempted to unite the two duchies with his kingdom in 1848. However, due to opposition from Prussia and the Duke of Augustenburg, the attempt failed. Denmark's possession of the duchies was confirmed by the Treaty of London in 1852, but their complete incorporation into the Danish kingdom was prohibited. By asserting a constitutional claim in 1863, the Danish king broke the Treaty of London. Bismarck jumped into the fray right away.

Despite their enmity, Bismarck was successful in entangling Austria in an alliance with Prussia against Denmark. Bismarck's diplomatic achievement was significant, as Prussia could not act against Denmark on its own. The two powers issued an ultimatum to Denmark, which the Danish king refused, and thus war was declared. They invaded Denmark in February 1864, and the Danish king ceded the two duchies to Austria and Prussia jointly in a treaty signed in Vienna in October 1864. However, soon after, the two powers (Austria and Prussia) began to feud over SchleswigHolstein. While Prussia was interested in the duchies, Austria was opposed to Prussia's permanent occupation of the duchies. Rather, she proposed that the duchies be transferred to the Duke of Augustenburg, whom Prussia despised. Bismarck had been waiting for a situation like this. Bismarck arranged for a temporary solution to the problem through the Gastein Convention (1865), pending a final resolution. Austria was to occupy and administer the duchy of Holstein, which was populated by Danes, and Prussia was to occupy and administer the duchy of Schleswig, which was populated by Germans, according to the terms of the Convention. It was also agreed that the issue of duchies would not be brought before the Diet. This Convention became one of Bismarck's diplomatic masterstrokes. With Prussian territory surrounding Holstein, Bismarck saw an opportunity to plot against Austria in the duchy. Meanwhile, Austria was having difficulty keeping Holstein under her control because the Danes were frequently causing problems. As a result, she presented the Duke of Augustenburg's claims and brought the issue of the two duchies before the Federal Diet. This was a violation of the Gastein Convention, which allowed Bismarck to accuse Austria of bad faith and use it as a pretext for war. But, before going to war, Bismarck used diplomacy to protect Prussia from foreign intervention by securing Russia's goodwill after Prussia assisted the Czar in suppressing the Polish insurgency (1863). While Austria had lost the Czar's favour due to her pro-Polish stance, he now (1865) won over French neutrality by gaining Emperor Napoleon III's sympathy for nationalist aspirations and creating the possibility of gaining territory on the Rhine or in Belgium. Then he negotiated an alliance treaty with Italy, stating that if Prussia

could provoke a war within three months, Italy would cooperate with Prussia against Austria and receive Venetia as a reward for their assistance. Bismarck persuaded Prussian King William I to join the war after diplomatically isolating Austria. Bismarck proceeded to provoke a conflict with Austria despite having completed both military and diplomatic preparations for the war. In response to Austria's demand that the question of the two duchies be resolved before the Federal Diet, he declared the Convention of Gastein to be defunct and dispatched troops into Holstein to expel the Austrians. Prussia's hostile action enraged the Austrians, who mobilised their troops in retaliation. Prussia proposed that the German Confederation be reformed on the basis of universal suffrage, with Austria excluded. Prussia's reform proposal was rejected by Austria, which persuaded the Diet to mobilise the Federal forces to punish Prussia for infringing on Austrian rights in Holstein. The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 ensued, with Prussia seceding from the Confederation and declaring war on Austria, ostensibly in self-defense. In June of 1866, the war finally broke out. It was one of the shortest wars in history, lasting only 16 days from June 16 to July 3, 1866. Prussia had no significant German allies. Austria was backed by Hesse-Cassel, Bavaria, Saxony, and almost all of Germany's minor states, whose rulers were wary of Prussian plans. Prussia, on the other hand, had a superior military organisation that allowed them to strike with incredible speed. In ten days, the Prussian armies swept through Hesse-Cassel, Bavaria, and Saxony, crushing the resistance of the smaller German states. Then they launched a direct attack on the Austrians, defeating them at Sadowa by a large margin. Fearing further foreign intervention, Bismarck began negotiations with Austria right away, effectively ending the war with the Treaty of Prague. Austria accepted her exclusion from Germany, agreed to the German Confederation's dissolution, ceded Venetia to Italy and her share of Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia, and agreed to recognise Prussia's reconstruction of Germany. Germany's reconstruction: Prussia's victory established her as Germany's supreme power. Prussia annexed Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Nassau, and the free city of Frankfort, extending her territory across North Germany. The other states north of the Maine River were grouped into a new confederation known as the North German

Confederation, which was led by Prussian King Frederick William III. Bismarck, on the other hand, left southern German states such as Bavaria, Baden, Wurtemburg, and others free to do as they pleased. As a result of Prussia's victory over Austria, Germany's partial unification was completed. The Franco-Prussian War was fought between France and Prussia. After completing the partial unification of Germany, Bismarck set out to complete the task. France was the most powerful continental power at the time. Bismarck was well aware that, in order to complete Germany's unification, a war with France was unavoidable. As a result, he isolated France diplomatically. Prussia had a friendly relationship with Russia because Bismarck had offered to assist her during the Polish upheavals. Bismarck solidified the relationship by endorsing Russian plans to attack Turkey. After the defeat at Sadowa, Prussia had the goodwill of Austria, who treated her with great leniency and moderation. The friendship of Italy was maintained by promising her the acquisition of Rome, where the Pope's position was being defended by French troops. Bismarck attempted to find an early pretext for a war with France after securing the goodwill of neighbouring powers. The Spanish incident in 1868 provided the much-needed impetus for war. Prussia was declared a foe by Napoleon III. The immediate cause of the war was the Prussian king's refusal to guarantee the Spanish throne. Bismarck published Napoleon III's written proposals containing his demand for compensation before the outbreak of hostilities, persuading Europe that a new era of French aggression was about to begin. As a result, he bolstered anti-French sentiment in Europe, as well as bringing the South German states to Prussia's side. The French were defeated at Worth and Graveloth during the war. Finally, at Sedan, Napoleon III was taken prisoner after the entire French army surrendered to Prussian general Von Moltke. Following that, Bismarck forced France to accept the Treaty of Frankfurt, which required France to hand over Alsace and Lorraine to Germany, pay a large war indemnity, and allow German troops to occupy a portion of France until the indemnity was paid.

UNIFICATION OF ITALY

Vienna Congress and Italy

Napoleon III attempted to free the Austrian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia at one point. However, in the midst of his success, he abandoned the cause of the Italian nationalities. Napoleon III's betrayal demonstrated that Italian nationalities could only free themselves from foreign yoke through their own efforts. The Congress of Vienna, however, dashed all hopes. The Pope represented the Italians at the Vienna Congress, which was not what the Italian patriots wanted. However, Metternich, who led the Congress, did not see Italians as people, and thus the formation of a state by them was impossible. Austria began extending its influence in Italy as a result of the Vienna agreement. Military troops were stationed in Lombardy-Venetia on a permanent basis. Every action taken during the Congress was aimed at preventing Italy from falling under French control. In Italy, old Dukes and Kings were restored, who would serve under the Austrian Emperor's command. All of this worked against the idea of Italy being unified. Makers of Modern Italy

Many patriots dedicated their lives to the development of modern Italy. Three great people were among them: Joseph Mazzini, Giuseppe Garibaldi, and Count Camillodi Cavour. These three leaders held opposing viewpoints on Italy's unification, but they were united in their goals. The three parties that began working for Italy's unification were Republicans, Federalists, and Constitutionalists. Let us look at how these three leaders contributed to Italy's unification. Joseph Mazzini (1805-1872) was born in Genoa in the year 1805. In him, the deepest aspiration of the Italian people had finally found expression: clear, bold, and completely thrilling. He was a proponent of republican government. The Republicans, led by Mazzini, made bold attempts to incite the Italians to revolt against the authorities. In 1830, he attempted to achieve his goal by joining the Carbonari and staging an organised revolt. However, he was caught and imprisoned as a result of his failure. In 1831, he founded

the Young Italy society to instil patriotism and nationalism in the populace. This society was destined to play a key role in the creation of a new Italy. This society's programme was very clear: first and foremost, Austria had to be thrown out of Italy, and war had to break out as soon as possible. No Italian should rely on foreign aid and diplomacy; instead, they should rely on their own unaided strength. God and his people was his motto. Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) was an Italian statesman who lived from 1807 to 1882. From the beginning, he was drawn to a life of adventure. Mazzini had a huge influence on him. As a result, he became a member of Young Italy. His military background was primarily in irregular guerilla warfare. He even took part in Mazzini's revolt in 1834, and was sentenced to death as a result. But he managed to flee to South America, where he lived in exile for the next 14 years. In South America, he took part in a number of wars. In America, he even founded the 'Red Shirt Party' and took part in the civil war there. When the revolution in Europe erupted in 1848, Garibaldi returned to Italy. When the Piedmont government refused his services, he aided Lombard patriots. He fled to America once more, but returned to Italy to finish Cavour's work for Italian unification. He was a supporter of the Federalist Party. The Federalists, led by Garibaldi, wished to establish a federation of Italian states under the presidency of the Pope. Despite being a Federalist, Garibaldi eventually agreed to a constitutional monarchy. Cavour, Count (1810-1861): Count Cavour was born in Sardinia in 1810 and spent most of his childhood in Piedmont. He was a patriot and a nationalist. Mazzini had set up a situation that Cavour took full advantage of. Cavour was a top-notch diplomat and a shrewd politician. Cavour's policy for Italy's unification was based on the sound principle that Italy could not work for her own salvation alone. Cavour was a liberal thinker who joined the Piedmontese cabinet in 1850 and rose to become Piedmont's Prime Minister in 1852. With the exception of a brief interruption, he served as Prime Minister of Piedmont until his death in 1861. With his election to the presidency, a new phase of the Italian question began to emerge. Cavour attempted to bring Italy together with the help of Garibaldi's armed strength and his own diplomacy. Cavour

understood that sound foreign policy must always be based on domestic economic and political stability. He had always aspired to make Sardinia – Piedmont a model state and a leader among all Italian states for this reason. The unification of Italy took place in stages. These stages are descri...