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URBAN TRANSIT SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY Urban Transit Systems and Technology. Vukan R. Vuchic Copyright  2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-75823-5 URBAN TRANSIT SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY Vukan R. Vuchic JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 嘷 ⬁ Copyright 䉷 20...

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URBAN TRANSIT SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY

Urban Transit Systems and Technology. Vukan R. Vuchic Copyright  2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-75823-5

URBAN TRANSIT SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY Vukan R. Vuchic

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

This book is printed on acid-free paper. 嘷 ⬁ Copyright 䉷 2007 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada Wiley Bicentennial Logo: Richard J. Pacifico No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 6468600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 7486011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com / go / permissions. Limit of Liability / Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and the author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information about our other products and services, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Vuchic, Vukan R. Urban transit systems and technology / by Vukan Vuchic. p. cm. ISBN 978-0-471-75823-5 1. Urban transportation—United States—Planning. 2. Local transit—United States—Planning. 3. Transportation engineering—United States. I. Title. HE308.V834 2007 388.40973—dc22 2006020356 Printed in the United States of America 10

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To my Rada, who has been my intellectual partner and supported my professional and academic work ever since we first met in Belgrade in 1957.

CONTENTS Preface, xiii Acknowledgments, xv 1 HISTORY AND ROLE OF PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION IN URBAN DEVELOPMENT

1.5.2 Electric Interurban Railways, 35 1.5.3 Rapid Transit/Metro, 37 1.6 Overview and Conclusions: Transit Development and Cities, 39

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1.1 Early Development of Cities, 1 1.1.1 Transportation and Locations of Cities, 1 1.1.2 Transportation and City Size, 2 1.1.3 Form and Structure of Cities, 3 1.1.4 The Industrial Revolution, Urbanization, and the Growth of Cities, 5 1.2 Beginnings of Public Transportation, 8 1.2.1 Public Transportation before the Nineteenth Century, 8 1.2.2 Horse-Drawn Omnibuses, 9 1.2.3 Horse-Drawn Tramways, 10 1.2.4 Mechanized Street Transit Technologies before 1880, 11 1.3 Invention of Electric Streetcars/Tramways, 14 1.3.1 Beginnings of Electric Streetcars in the United States, 15 1.3.2 Introduction of Electric Tramways in Europe, 17 1.4 Street Transit Development since 1900, 19 1.4.1 Streetcars/Tramways, 19 1.4.2 Motorbuses, 25 1.4.3 Trolleybuses, 29 1.5 Development of High-Speed Rail Transit Modes, 33 1.5.1 Suburban Railways/Regional Rail, 33

2 URBAN PASSENGER TRANSPORT MODES

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2.1 Transport System Definitions and Classification, 45 2.1.1 Classification by Type of Usage, 45 2.1.2 Transit Modes, 47 2.1.3 Transit System Components, 53 2.1.4 Transit System Operations, Service, and Characteristics, 53 2.2 Theory of Urban Passenger Transport Modes, 55 2.2.1 Evolution of a Transportation System in a Model Urban Area, 55 2.2.2 Review of Modal Features, 64 2.3 The Family of Transit Modes: Categories and Descriptions, 66 2.3.1 Paratransit, 66 2.3.2 Street Transit Modes, 67 2.3.3 Medium-Capacity Modes: Semirapid Transit, 68 2.3.4 High-Performance Modes: Rapid Transit, 71 2.3.5 Specialized Transit Modes, 73 2.3.6 Review of the Family of Regular Transit Modes, 73 2.3.7 Commuter Transit, 81 2.4 Trends in Transit Ridership and in Use of Different Modes, 81 vii

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2.4.1 Urban Travel and Transit Ridership, 82 2.4.2 Increasing Diversity of Transit Modes, 86 3 VEHICLE MOTION AND PERFORMANCE

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3.1 Vehicle Motion, 91 3.2 Resistance to Motion, 93 3.2.1 Vehicle Resistance, 93 3.2.2 Alignment Resistance, 95 3.3 Internal Combustion Engine Propulsion, 97 3.3.1 Characteristic Diagram for ICEs, 97 3.3.2 Speed-Tractive Effort Diagram: TE ⫽ f(V), 98 3.3.3 Vehicle Motion Force as a Function of Speed, 100 3.4 Electric Propulsion, 100 3.4.1 Wayside Electric Power Supply and Its Distribution to Lines, 101 3.4.2 Propulsion Motors and Their Control, 101 3.4.3 Electronic Motor Control, 108 3.4.4 AC Propulsion Motors and Their Electronic Control, 108 3.4.5 Comparison of Motor Control Types, 110 3.4.6 Other Propulsion Systems, 112 3.4.7 Vehicle Acceleration Force, 113 3.4.8 Comparison of Electric and Diesel Propulsions, 114 3.5 Vehicle Acceleration, Braking, and Stopping Distances, 115 3.5.1 Adhesion for Wheel Traction, 115 3.5.2 Acceleration and Braking Forces and Distances, 119 3.6 Station-to-Station Travel Analysis, 120 3.6.1 Basic Variables of Vehicle Motion, 121 3.6.2 Regimes of Motion, 122 3.6.3 Travel Time Equations and Diagrams, 124 3.6.4 Sensitivity of Travel Time and Speed to Individual Parameters, 130

3.7 Energy Consumption and Efficiency, 134 3.7.1 Structure of Energy Consumption Analysis, 135 3.7.2 Influence of Operating Regimes, 136 3.7.3 Potential Energy Savings through Preprogrammed Driving, 138 3.7.4 Influence of Stop/Station Spacing, 139 3.7.5 Measures of Energy Consumption, 139 4 TRANSIT SYSTEM PERFORMANCE: CAPACITY, PRODUCTIVITY, EFFICIENCY, AND UTILIZATION 149 4.1 Definitions of Quantitative Performance Attributes, 149 4.1.1 Basic Attributes, 149 4.1.2 Transportation Work and Productivity, 151 4.1.3 Transit System Efficiency and Productivity, 152 4.1.4 Consumption and Utilization, 153 4.2 Transit Line Capacity, 153 4.2.1 Definitions, 153 4.2.2 Vehicle Capacity, 156 4.3 Way Capacity, 160 4.3.1 Basic Elements, 161 4.3.2 Vehicle Control Categories in Transit Operation, 163 4.3.3 Operating Safety Regimes, 165 4.3.4 Impacts of Train Size and Control Characteristics, 169 4.3.5 Application of Equations to Different Modes, 173 4.4 Station Capacity, 175 4.4.1 Significance and Definitions, 175 4.4.2 Components and Influencing Factors, 177 4.4.3 Capacity Diagrams and Equations, 178 4.4.4 Measures to Increase Station Capacity, 181 4.5 Theoretical and Practical Capacities of Major Transit Modes, 186

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4.5.1 Important Considerations in Capacity Computations, 186 4.5.2 Review of Theoretical Capacities, 188 4.5.3 Actual Capacities of Major Transit Modes, 190 4.6 Other Quantitative Performance Measures, 194 4.6.1 Transportation Quantity or Volume, 194 4.6.2 System and Network Performance, 195 4.6.3 Transportation Work and Productivity, 196 4.6.4 Transit System Efficiency (Productivity) Indicators, 196 4.6.5 Consumption Rates and Utilization Indicators, 197 5 HIGHWAY TRANSIT: BUS, TROLLEYBUS, AND BUS RAPID TRANSIT 202 5.1 Family of Highway Transit Modes, 202 5.1.1 Definitions, 202 5.1.2 General Characteristics, 203 5.1.3 Bus Transit System and Bus Rapid Transit Concepts, 203 5.2 The Vehicles, 204 5.2.1 Classification by Propulsion Systems, 204 5.2.2 Classification by Body Type, 210 5.2.3 Propulsion, Equipment, and Performance, 228 5.2.4 Body Structure and Form, 231 5.2.5 Review of Bus Models, Characteristics, and Design Trends, 236 5.3 Travel Ways, 239 5.3.1 Geometric Elements, 239 5.3.2 Operation in Mixed Traffic, 239 5.3.3 Bus Preferential Treatments, 240 5.3.4 Bus Lanes on Streets, 244 5.3.5 Bus Operations on Freeways, 250 5.3.6 Busways, 254 5.4 Bus Rapid Transit, 256 5.4.1 Definitions of Bus Transit Modes, 256 5.4.2 Evolution of BRT as a Mode, 256

5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 5.4.6

Vehicles, 260 Infrastructure: Lines and Stations, 262 Operations and ITS Applications, 265 Review and Evaluation of BTS and BRT, 265 5.5 Stops, Stations, and Maintenance Facilities, 273 5.5.1 Bus Stops on Streets, 273 5.5.2 Stations and Terminals, 276 5.5.3 Garages, Storage Facilities, and Maintenance Shops, 281 5.6 Operations, Performance, and Costs, 285 5.6.1 Operations and Types of Service, 285 5.6.2 Performance Characteristics, 286 5.6.3 Service Quality and System Impacts, 287 5.6.4 Costs, 287 5.6.5 Trolleybuses: Characteristics and Applications, 288 5.7 Present and Future Roles of Highway Transit Modes, 289 6 RAIL TRANSIT: STREETCARS/TRAMWAYS, LIGHT RAIL, RAPID TRANSIT, AND REGIONAL RAIL 297 6.1 Family of Rail Transit Modes, 297 6.1.1 General Characteristics, 297 6.1.2 Definitions and Characteristics of Individual Rail Modes, 300 6.2 Rolling Stock, 309 6.2.1 Rail Vehicle Types and Basic Components, 310 6.2.2 Trucks and Mechanical/Electrical Equipment, 315 6.2.3 Vehicle Body, 322 6.2.4 Review of Characteristics of Different Vehicle Models, 336 6.2.5 Basic Operating Units and Train Consists, 344 6.3 Rail Transit Ways: Geometry and Facilities, 350 6.3.1 Geometric Elements, 351

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CONTENTS

6.3.2 Track Superstructure, 354 6.3.3 Rights-of-Way, 362 Rubber-Tired Rapid Transit (RTRT), 383 6.4.1 Description of the Technology, 384 6.4.2 Characteristics and Comparison with Rail Technology, 385 6.4.3 Potential Applications of Rubber-Tired Rapid Transit, 387 Stops, Stations, and Yards, 388 6.5.1 At-Grade Stops, 388 6.5.2 At-Grade Transfer Stations, 389 6.5.3 Controlled-Access Stations, 390 6.5.4 Auto-Transit Interface Stations, 405 6.5.5 Rail Transit Yards and Shops, 408 Operations, Performance, and Costs, 408 6.6.1 Vehicle/Train Travel Control and Automation, 408 6.6.2 Performance Characteristics of Rail Modes, 421 6.6.3 Rail Transit Costs, 426 Present and Future Role of Rail Transit, 431 6.7.1 Trends and Impacts of Urban Population and Growth of Auto Ownership, 432 6.7.2 Goals and Objectives in Building Rail Transit Systems, 432 6.7.3 What Size City for Rapid Transit?, 434 6.7.4 Development of Rail Transit in the United States, 436 6.7.5 Present and Future Role of Rail Transit around the World, 437

7 UNCONVENTIONAL CONCEPTS AND SYSTEMS: AUTOMATED GUIDED TRANSIT AND MONORAILS 7.1 Evaluation of Conventional Systems and Potential for Innovations, 444 7.2 Analysis of Systems Components, 445 7.2.1 Vehicle Support, Guidance, and Switches, 445 7.2.2 Vehicle/TU Capacity, 452 7.2.3 Dual-Mode Operations, 453 7.2.4 Fully Automatic Operation, 455 7.3 Unconventional Modes and Systems, 456

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7.3.1 Automated Guided Transit and Automated People Movers, 456 7.3.2 Monorails, 469 7.3.3 Personal Rapid Transit (PRT), 472 7.4 Evaluation of Unconventional Modes and New Concepts, 475 8 SPECIALIZED TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS

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8.1 Short-Haul and Shuttle Transit Systems, 477 8.1.1 Pedestrians and Pedestrian-Assisting Systems, 477 8.1.2 Short-Haul Transit Modes, 478 8.1.3 Significance of Short-Haul Transportation, 481 8.1.4 Point-to-Point Shuttles and Lines, 481 8.2 Terrain-Specialized Technologies, 482 8.2.1 Rail Systems with Auxiliary Traction, 482 8.2.2 Aerial Tramways, 490 8.3 Waterborne Transit Systems, 493 8.3.1 Types of Vessels, 493 8.3.2 Ferryboat Services, 497 9 PARATRANSIT

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9.1 Definition and Classification, 501 9.2 Modified Uses of Private Transportation, 503 9.2.1 Car Rentals, 503 9.2.2 Carpools, 503 9.3 Semipublic Paratransit, 504 9.3.1 Vanpools, 504 9.3.2 Subscription Buses, 505 9.3.3 Car Sharing, 506 9.4 Public (Regular) Paratransit, 506 9.4.1 Taxis, 506 9.4.2 Jitneys, 508 9.4.3 Dial-a-Ride and Other Hybrid-Type Services, 513 9.5 Evaluation of Paratransit and Its Roles, 516 9.5.1 Characteristics of Paratransit, 516 9.5.2 Potential Improvements, 517 9.5.3 Present and Potential Roles of Paratransit, 518

CONTENTS

10 CHARACTERISTICS AND COMPARISONS OF TRANSIT MODES 521 10.1 Basic Elements of Transit Modes, 521 10.1.1 Significance of Right-of-Way Categories, 521 10.1.2 Transit Systems Technology, 524 10.1.3 Interdependence of ROW and System Technology, 528 10.1.4 Review of Technological and Operational Features, 528 10.2 Medium-Performance Transit Modes, 532 10.2.1 Bus Rapid Transit, 532 10.2.2 Trolleybus System, 533 10.2.3 Light Rail Transit, 534 10.2.4 Automated Guided Transit Systems, 535 10.2.5 Comparisons of Medium-Performance Modes, 538 10.3 High-Performance Modes, 544 10.3.1 Light Rail Rapid Transit Modes, 545 10.3.2 Rail Rapid Transit/Metro, 547 10.3.3 Rubber-Tired Rapid Transit and Monorails, 548 10.3.4 Review of Guided Modes and Their Automation, 549 10.4 Regional Transit Modes, 550 10.4.1 Regional Buses, 551 10.4.2 Commuter Rail, 551

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10.4.3 Regional Rail, 551 10.4.4 Regional Rapid Transit, 552 10.4.5 Trends in Regional Rail Transit Development, 552 10.5 Progress and Problems in Mode Selection, 553 10.5.1 Increased Mode Diversification, 554 10.5.2 Support for and Attacks on Public Transit, 554 10.5.3 Campaigns against Rail Transit, 555 10.5.4 Discrepancies between Theoretical Analyses and Real World Systems, 556 10.5.5 Systems Approach in Mode Selection and Intermodal Relationships, 557 10.5.6 Importance of Rational Choice of Transit Modes, 559 Bibliography, 563 Appendix I SI and English Units and Conversion Factors, 565 Appendix II List of Abbreviations, 572 Appendix III Definitions of Transit Systems Terms, 575 Appendix IV Answers to Selected Exercise Questions, 583 Index of Cities

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Index

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PREFACE Many cities and metropolitan areas face the problems of chronic traffic congestion and its serious negative side effects. They also suffer from excessive auto dependency, which reduces mobility and sustainability. To solve these problems, cities are making efforts to implement intermodal transportation systems that minimize negative side effects and enhance their economic viability and quality of life. In these efforts, city governments recognize urban public transportation, popularly known as transit, as the critical element in achieving balanced transportation system. These trends and experiences have led to introduction of policies favorable to transit system development and innovations. The support for urban transit provided by federal / national and other levels of government have played a major role in its upgrading through research and development, financing of new systems, new modes, and applied research for solving technical, operational, and planning problems. Consequently, the need for greater expertise in technology, operations, and planning of transit systems is now more obvious than it has ever been since the introduction of wide use of private cars. This author’s first book, Urban Public Transportation Systems and Technology (Prentice-Hall, 1981), contained systematic definitions and evaluation of basic concepts in urban transportation, descriptions of transit modes, their design and analysis. Its focus was on engineering aspects of transit systems. That book was followed by Transportation for Livable Cities (Center for Urban Policy Research at Rutgers, 1999), covering the roles of transit and its interaction with city character and quality of life. It presented explanations of the basic characteristics and relationships of differ-

ent modes, including pedestrians, private automobiles, and different transit modes. His third book, completing a sequence named ‘‘Transit Trilogy,’’ was Urban Transit Operations, Planning and Economics (Wiley 2005). It covered a broad range of topics on transit system operations, scheduling, lines and networks, economic and organizational aspects, planning procedures, and mode selection. This book, Urban Transit Systems and Technology, is an updated and revised version of the first book, focusing on systems and engineering aspects of transit. The intent here is again to present the fundamental classification of transit modes and their physical components, as well as descriptions of state-of-the-art transit technologies. Thus, parts of the first book which describe the basic elements of transit modes and their dynamic characteristics are retained. However, all descriptions of transit systems and their operations have been updated, including numerous developments and innovations from the last 25 years. To illustrate the changes during this period, in 1981 metro systems existed in 55 cities in the world; today there are over 100. In 1981 there was only one new light rail transit system in North America (Edmonton); in 2006 there are more than 20. Bus rapid transit existed as a special type of bus operations in Sa˜o Paulo and a few other cities, while in recent years it has been recognized as an established mode in many countries. Automated systems have also had a strong development. This book starts with an updated Chapter 1 covering historic development of transit and its impacts. Chapter 2 presents classification and description of transit systems—the family of transit modes, guiding the reader xiii

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PREFACE

to the grouping of modes into several categories which are covered in later chapters. Chapter 3 covers theory of traction and describes particularly internal combustion engine and electric traction. The latter has recorded revolutionary developments in recent decades (choppers and inverters, then AC motors, both resulting in great increases in energy efficiency). Travel time computations and energy consumption are also covered. Transit system performance and measures of its capacity, efficiency, utilization, etc., are presented in Chapter 4. Material covers considerable theoretical analyses, as well as practical methods for performance and efficiency computations. Chapters 5 through 9 describe different categories of transit modes. Chapter 5 has extensive material on bus systems, including bus rapid transit in a separate section. Rail systems, including the four major modes, are the subject of Chapter 6. This is the largest chapter because of the technical complexity, diversity, as well as increasing use of rail modes in many countries. Chapters 5 and 6 discuss the recent introduction of low-floor vehicles, which have significantly increased the convenience and efficiency of bus, LRT, and RGR services in pedestrian-oriented urban areas. Unconventional modes, particularly automated guided systems, are the subject of Chapter 7. Increasing use of these modes as people mover shuttles and as regular transit lines are described. Chapter 8 covers specialized modes, such as cog railways, funiculars, and ferryboats, all of which have had increasing applications in many cities in recent years. A variety of paratransit modes and their numerous applications in industrialized and in developing countries are described in Chapter 9. Finally, Chapter 10 presents a review and comparisons of different modes presented in the preceding five chapters. Some material from preceding chapters is summarized to facilitate this review and comparisons

of modes in different categor...