WALA KOY UYAB - midterm exam PDF

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midterm exam
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VISION

- barrier between the inner eye and the outside world

-appear in our eyes through the form of waved lengths called VISUAL STIMULI

- involved in focusing light waves that enter the eye.

-interpreted by the eye and sent to the brain for perception.

PUPIL: (enters and filters)

lights are tiny waves (photons)

- size of the pupil can change as a function of light levels

-brightness, color, saturation

- pupil’s size is controlled by muscles that are

-enters from the front to the back, bends upon entering process called REFRACTION

connected to the iris IRIS - colored portion of the eye

PROBLEMS

LENS: (magnifier)

HYPEROPIA (farsightedness)

*SQURITING – it helps the lens to be clear*

-difficulty focusing with near objects

RETINA:

MYOPIA (nearsightedness)

-area which the lens has focused

-difficulty focusing with distant objects

*RODS AND CONES ARE FOUND*

PRESBYOPIA

RODS – responsible for intensity

-caused by aging and farsightedness

CONES – for the color

PARTS AND PROCESS OF THE EYE

HEARING -sound waves causing from VIBRATION -stimuli is heard, vibration bend the air in the ear to perceive a sound MEASUREMENTS: HERTEZ (Hz) LOUDNESS: DECIBELS (dB)

CORNEA > PUPIL > LENS > RETINA CORNEA: (light passes) - transparent covering over the eye

FREQUENCY – its pitch rises, nerve impulses of the same frequency flow into auditory nerve. PLACE THEORY: higher & lower tones excite specific areas of the cochlea.

SOUND LOCALIZATION: PARTS AND PROCESS OF THE EAR

GUSTATION / TASTING

PINNA: external part COCHLEA: -organ makes up the inner ear

*HAVE SPECIFIC PURPOSE REGRADING IDENTIFYING THE DIFFERENT TASTE*

-snail shaped -organ of hearing HAIR CELLS: -receptor cells within cochlea the transduce it into nerve impulses, overused they are never placed PROBLEMS CONDUCTION DEAFNESS -poor transfer of sound from tympanic membrane to inner ear -compensate with amplifier (hearing aid)

OLFACTION / SMELL -ability to smell odors (olfactory sense) *10 million are found in your nose* CILIA: -little hairs that send the sensation to the brain *humans can detect 10,000 separate smells as compared to other creatures* According to ENGEN, 1987…

NERVE DEAFNESS

“women are said to have better sense of smell.”

-caused by the damage to hair cells/ auditory nerve, hearing aid are useless in these cases since

*people can distinguish if the smell is male or female*

STIMULATION DEAFNESS - damage caused by exposing hair cells to excessively loud sounds -65% losing flair cell

TOUCH SKIN SENSES: light, pressure, pain, heat, cold, warmth

KINESTHETIC: detect body position & movement VESTIBULAR: balance, position in space, acceleration

CLOSURE: “gusto lahat ng mga babae” -tendency to complete figures that are CONTINULTY:

PERCEPTUAL ORGAN. GESTALT LAWS OF ORGAN -sense of principles that describe how we organize bits of information into meaning words. 2 WAYS TO PROCESS INFORMATION BUTTOM-UP: -consists of the progression of recognizing and processing information from senses. TOP-DOWN: -guided by higher-level knowledge, experience and motivation to figure it out.

PERCEPTION

“ang gusto incomplete -tendency to perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous pattern than by a complex broken-up pattern

LEARNING -relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience 3 TYPES OF CONDITIONINGS CLASSIC CONDITIONING: -happens through association/pairing of different stimuli to form response; usually happens. -happens in 3 phases (before , during , after)

-define as “how sensations are interpreted by the individual “

BEFORE: UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE> NEUTAL RESPONSE

PRINCIPLES

DURING: UNCONDITIONED> NEUTRAL>

FIGURE-GROUND:

PROPOSED >CONDITIONED RESPONSE

-tendency to perceive an object or figure as existing in a bg.

AFTER: CONDITIONED STIMULUS> CONDITIONED RESPONSE

PROXIMITY: “wag masyado lumapit, ma-attach ako”

UNCONDITIONED SITMULUS – uses by 5 senses

-tendency to perceive things that work similar to each other as being part of the same group

NEUTRAL RESPONSE- experienced by 5 senses

STIMULUS GENERALIZATION:

REINFORCEMENT/REWARD:

-the process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to original stimulus produce the same response.

-process in which positive behavior is rewarded for the likelihood for it to repeat

*you boys are all the same*

PUNISHMENT: -process in which negative behavior is punished so that behavior will be reduced.

STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION: -occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not, the ability to differentiate between stimuli EXTINCTION: -basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears SPONTANEUOS RECOVERY: -reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning

POSITIVE REINFORRCEMENT PS given to increase behavior POSITIVE PUNSHIMENT NS is added to decrease behavior

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT NS is removed to increase behavior NEGATIVE PUNSHIMENT PS is removed to decrease behavior

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: *DID SOMETHING, BAD/GOOD TAKEN AWAY* POSITIVE PUNISHMENT: *YOU WILL RECEIVE SOMETHING* *GIVE SOMETHING BAD, GET BAD*

OPERANT CONDITIONING: by strengthening/weakening the occurrence of behavior depending if favorable or not *voluntarily, up to you, person who right to modify, person changing to change the person* LAW OF EFFECT -responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated

SCHEDULE REINFORCEMENT INTERMITTENT CONTINOUS Given every single time Delivered after some behavior or responses behavior is repeated but never each time *Continuous reinforcement stimulus is more often used when teaching new behaviors, while Intermittent reinforcement are used when maintaining previously learned behavior (cooper et al., 2007) *

INTERMITTENT

ELEMENTS

FIXED-RATIO:

1. ATTENTION:

-means that reinforcement should be delivered after a constant or “fixed” number of correct responses.

-paying attention & highlighting important parts

{ex. X number of correct answers} FIXED INTERVAL: -means that stimulus become available after a specific period of time.

2. RETENTION: -retaining the observed behavior so it can be repeated. 3. PRODUCTION: -repeating, practicing, asking for feedback

{ex. Child given a prize for 10mins., he doesn’t talk}

4. MOTIVATION & REINFORCEMENT:

VARIABLE RATIO:

-using rewards/reinforcement for consistency

-the delivery of reinforce will “vary” but must average cut at a specific number

MEMORY

*has a goal, depends on the feeling* -process by we encode, storage, retrieval VARIABLE INTERVAL: -means the time periods the must pass before r. becomes available will “vary” but must average cut at a specific final interval

ENCODING: inputting information brought by senses STORAGE: holding onto information for some period of time

{ex. Checking facebook, not constant} RETRIEVAL: getting information which was previously stored OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING:

-how you understand it

learning through observing and replicating the behavior

-never retrieve (dili na encode) SENSORY:

BEHAVIORISM- seen, felt done repeated *MONKEY SEE, MONKEY DO*

-first stage of memory which holds removes to a fraction of a second ICONIC: using the senses of sight ECHOIC: uses the senses of hearing SHORT TERM MEMORY: -memory that hold information for 15-20sec

SELECTIVE ATTENTION:

WHY DO WE FORGET

-ability to focus on one stimuli among all the available stimuli

1.

Poor Encoding

2.

Inability to retrieve information

3.

Interference

4.

State-dependent memory

5.

Distortion

WORKING MENU: -an active system the processes information to short term memory. IMPROVE: Chunking – 7-12

PROACTIVE:

Maintenance Rehearsal – over & over again

-information learned earlier interrupts new information {sociology vs psychology}

Elaborative Rehearsal- making new connections

RETROACTIVE:

MNEMONICS LONG TERM MEMORY: -stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although may be difficult to retrieve. DECLARATIVE: -memory for factual information

-information learned earlier difficult remember because of late exposure to different material DECAY: -loss of information in memory through its nonuse (walay gamit, wala ka gigamit) INTERFERENCE:

{names, dates}

-phenomenon in which information in memory disrupts the recall of information.

PRODURAL:

PROBLEMS

-for skills and habits {ex. riding a bike}

ALZHEIMHERS DISEASE:

SEMANTIC:

-an illness characterized by severe memory problem

-general knowledge and facts about the world as well as rules of logic, that are used to deduce other facts ESPISODIC: -for events that occurs in a particular time event.

AMNESIA: -memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties RETROGRADE MEMORY: -memory is lost for occurrences prior to the event that follow an injury

CONSCIONSNESS -to understand who we are, which waking, sleeping, dreaming even daydreaming. WAKING CONSCIOUSNESS: -state in thoughts, feeling, sensations are clear, organized the person feels alert. ALTERED STATE: -which there is a shift in the quality/pattern of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness SLEEPING: -called as “CIRCADAIN RHYTHM” controlled by the Hypothalamus -Melatonin is released by the body to help individual sleep. NON – REM -deep sleep -restful kind of sleep -body is free to move

REM -sleep cycle wherein the brain “active” -where dreams usually take place -muscle are inhibited

STAGE 2: SLEEP SPINDLES -body temperature starting to drop, heart rate slows down -majority of the night is during sleep STAGE 3 & 4: DELTA WAVES -long waves that indicate that the person is in deep sleep -growth of hormones happens during this stage -waking up during this stage makes the person groggy and disoriented, they also feeling that their body is heavy. REM SLEEP -dreaming happens here, body is close to normal temperature -“REM PARALYSIS”

DREAMING MANIFEST CONTENT: -actual dream & no interpretation

STAGES OF NON-REM

{a man dreams of a train going inside a tunnel is exactly that}

STAGE 1: LIGHT SLEEP

LATENT:

-people who wake up during this stage are

-hidden meaning of the dream, involves interpretation

more likely to deny that were asleep at all -vivid thoughts are here usually, associated here “hypnic” -falling in the dream

*some dreams could mean sex, according to Freud’s definition of latent content* PERSON = HOME HOUSE W/ SMOOTH WALLS = MEN BALCONIES W/ AREAS TO HOLD = WOMAN

ANIMALS = CHILDREN RESPECTED PEOPLE = PARENTS WATER = BIRTH CLOTHING = NAKEDNESS TAKING A JOURNEY = DEATH ENCLOSURE = VAGINA CIRCULAR OBJECT = BREASTS JEWELS = LOVE ONES ROCKETS, BALLONS, AIRPLANES, MISSILES = ERECT PENIS SHARP AND LONG OBJECTS = PENIS

NARCOTICS: that suppress the sensation of pain while stimulating the neurotransmitters of endorphins {heroin, morphine} HALLUNCINOGENS: helps individual is relax {marijuana} COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY – branch of psychology which talks about thinking.

THINKING | COGNITION -can be defined as mental activity that go on in the brain when a person is processing information organizing its understanding it and communicating it to other. MENTAL IMAGES: (representations)

PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS -drugs which alter a person’s thinking, perception, and memory DRUG USE: act of taking drugs DRUG ABUSE: act of excessively intimacy drugs DRUG DEPENDENCE: need to use drugs DRUG TOLERANCE: when the dosages not enough for individual STIMULANTS: increase functioning in the nervous system {tobacco, cocaine, tea coffee and soft drinks} DEPRESSANTS: that decrease functioning in the nervous system {sedatives, sleeping pills} AMPHETAMINES: stimulates that are made in labs, not natural {shabu, ecstasy}

-that stand in for object/events and have picture like quality, are one of several tools used in the thought process MENTAL IMAGERY: -is something people use everyday. It helps them remember where they {parked the car, find furniture that fits in their apartment and relax by creating daydreams} CONCEPTS: -ideas that represent a class/category of object, events, activites, people use concepts to think about objects/event without having to thinking about all the specific examples of the category PROBLEM SOLVING: -occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.

METHOD

TRAIL & ERROR: -error refers to trying one solution after another until finding one that works

-“I knew it all long phenomenon” tendency to “know” result even if you did not. THINKING

ALOGRITHMS:

CONVERGENT:

-are specific, step by step produces for solving certain types of problem will always result in a correct solution, if there is a correct solution to be found

-which a problem is seen a having only one answer works will normal problem solving but not certain ones.

HEURISTIC: -“rule of thumb” -is a simple rule that is intended to apply to many situations, mental shortcut REPRESNTATIVE: -used for categorizing objects & simply assumes that any object (or person) that shares characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category AVAILABILITY: -our estimation of the frequency/likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory | how easy it is focus to thinking about related examples problem with problem solving

DIVERGENT: -which a person starts from one point and comes up with mat different ideas/ possibilities on that point.

MOTIVATION -process by which activities are started, directed and continued which fulfills the need of an individuals. EXTRINSIC – comes from external factors -comes from the people, learned INTRINSIC – comes from within the person -makes you happy EARLY MOTIVATION

FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS:

INSTRICT: unlearned patterns of behavior related to motivation heat exist both in humans and animals

-block to problem solving that comes from thinking objects in terms of only their typical function

DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY: behavior arises from physiological needs that cause individuals to satisfy their needs

CONFIRMATION BAIS:

NEED – requirements needed to survive

-self serving bias, look for information that are only associated with your values, opinions (don’t listen to others opinion)

DRIVE – motivates the individual to fulfills the need

HINDSIGHT BIAS:

PRIMARY NEEDS: needs of the body

{food, water, shelter} SECONDARY NEEDS: held that are learned by experience/ conditioning {money, power, fame} HUNGER -process which individuals eat to reduce the drive hunger TASTE AVERSION – active dislikes for a particular food, very difficult to overcome. ANOREXIA NERVOSA – sustains a loss of appetite/ self – starvation

RESOLUTION: return to lower levels to sexual tensions arousal TYPES OF MOTIVES BIOLOGICAL For survival Emotional such as pain avoidance Psychological such as relationship

STIMULUS For curiosity New information “chismis” Learning

LEARNED MOTIVES:

BULIMIA NERVOSA - excessive eating followed by purging

-that comes from social pressure

SEX

{trends, new gadgets}

EROGENOUS ZONES: areas of the body that produce pleasure/ provoke erotic desires

TYPES OF NEEDS

-learned from society

POWER– control/ influence others {genitals, breasts} SEXUAL ORIENTATION: degree of emotional and erotic attraction to members of the same, opposite, and both sexes. HETEROSEXUAL – attached romantically and erotically to the opposite sex

ACHIEVEMENTS – need to success, attain goals AFFILIATION – need for interaction SELF ACTUALIZATION by MASLOW

HOMOSEXUAL – attached romantically and erotically to same sex BISEXUAL - attached romantically and erotically to both sexes response can be divided into 4 phases that occurs the following; EXCITEMENT: initial signs of sexual arousal PLATEAU: physical arousal intensifies

SELF DETERMINATION THEORY By RYAN & DELI

ORGANSM: climax and release of sexual tensions

3 PSYCHOLGICAL NEEDS:

COMPETENCE – ability AUTONOMY – capacity to do things one RELATEDNESS –

EMOTIONS -feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive -changes in facial expression, gestures, postures, and subjective feelings 4 PARTS PROCESS CONSISTING PHYSIOLOGICAL/ AROUSAL

-anger, contempt, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness and surprise ROBERT PLUTCHIK -acceptance, anger, anticipation, joy, disgust, fear, sadness, surprise PAUL EKMAN -surprise, anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness FACIAL EXPRESSION: -are universal, human facial muscles can produce 20,000 expression, are innate

COGNITIVE INTERPRETATION SUBJECTIVE FEELINGS

MICRO-EXPRESSIONS

BEHAVIORAL EXPRESSION FOR? (FIGHT, FLIGHT, FREEZE) 

PREPARING US FOR ACTION

-Autonomic nervous system kicks in 

SHAPING FUTURE BEHAVIOR

-Avoiding circumstances which are bad 

HELPS US MORE TO INTERACTIVELY

-verbal and non-verbal communication EMOTIONS -manifest by body -observed by facial expression, tone in voice, manner of speaking -rising of skin temperature BASIC EMOTIONS

THEORIES OF EMOTIONS

HUMINTELL, 2014

JAMES – LANGE THEORY

By WILLIAM JAMES & CARL LANGE -belief that emotional experience is reaction to bodily events occurring as a result of an external situation -every major emotion there is an accompanying physiological/ “gut” reaction of internal organ CANNON – BARD By W. CANNON & P. BARD -both physiological arousal and emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same stimulus SCHATER – SINGER -emotions are determined jointly by nonspecific think of physiological arousal / its interpretation, based an environmental class -spillover effect -arousal spurs emotional cognition directs thinking...