Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual PDF

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Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual ABOUT THE AUTHOR Shun Dar Lin is an Emeritus Faculty of University of Illinois and in Taiwan. A registered professional engineer in Illinois, he has published nearly 100 papers, articles, and reports related to water and wastewater engineering. Dr. Lin bring...

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Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Shun Dar Lin is an Emeritus Faculty of University of Illinois and in Taiwan. A registered professional engineer in Illinois, he has published nearly 100 papers, articles, and reports related to water and wastewater engineering. Dr. Lin brings to the book a background in teaching, research, and practical field experience spanning nearly 50 years. Dr. Lin received his Ph.D. in Sanitary Engineering from Syracuse University, an M.S. in Sanitary Engineering from the University of Cincinnati, and a B.S. in Civil Engineering from National Taiwan University. He has taught and conducted research since 1960 at the Institute of Public Health of National Taiwan University. In 1986, Dr. Lin received the Water Quality Division Best Paper Award for “Giardia lamblia and Water Supply” from the American Water Works Association. He developed the enrichmenttemperature acclimation method for recovery enhancement of stressed fecal coliform. The method has been adopted in the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater since the 18th edition (1990). Dr. Lin is a life member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, the American Water Works Association, and the Water Environment Federation. He is a consultant to the governments of Taiwan and the United States and for consultant firms. Note: This book was written by Dr. Shun Dar Lin in his private capacity.

Copyright © 2007, 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual Shun Dar Lin

C. C. Lee Editor of Handbook of Environmental Engineering Calculations

Second Edition

New York

Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto

Copyright © 2007, 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 0-07-154266-3 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: 0-07-147624-5. All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps. McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. For more information, please contact George Hoare, Special Sales, at [email protected] or (212) 904-4069. TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGraw-Hill”) and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGrawHill’s prior consent. You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms. THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise. DOI: 10.1036/0071476245

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Contents

Preface

ix

Chapter 1. Streams and Rivers 1 General 2 Point Source Dilution 3 Discharge Measurement 4 Time of Travel 5 Dissolved Oxygen and Water Temperature 6 Biochemical Oxygen Demand Analysis 7 Streeter–Phelps Oxygen Sag Formula 8 BOD Models and K1 Computation 9 Determination of Reaeration Rate Constant K2 10 Sediment Oxygen Demand 11 Organic Sludge Deposits 12 Photosynthesis and Respiration 13 Natural Self-Purification in Streams 14 SOD of DO Usage 15 Apportionment of Stream Users 16 Velz Reaeration Curve (A Pragmatic Approach) 17 Stream DO Model (A Pragmatic Approach) 18 Biological Factors References

Chapter 2. Lakes and Reservoirs 1 Lakes and Impoundment Impairments 2 Lake Morphometry 3 Water Quality Models 4 Evaporation 5 The Clean Lakes Program References

1 2 2 3 4 5 10 13 14 41 49 52 54 55 78 79 87 92 107 121

125 125 126 130 131 137 176

v

vi

Contents

Chapter 3. Groundwater 1 Definition 2 Hydrogeologic Parameters 3 Steady Flows in Aquifers 4 Anisotropic Aquifers 5 Unsteady (Nonequilibrium) Flows 6 Groundwater Contamination 7 Setback Zones References

Chapter 4. Fundamental and Treatment Plant Hydraulics 1 Definitions and Fluid Properties 2 Water Flow in Pipes 3 Pumps 4 Water Flow in Open Channels 5 Flow Measurements References

Chapter 5. Public Water Supply

179 180 184 195 197 198 211 217 224

227 228 236 265 272 291 306

307

1 Sources and Quantity of Water 2 Population Estimates 3 Water Requirements 4 Regulations for Water Quality 5 Water Treatment Processes 6 Aeration and Air Stripping 7 Solubility Equilibrium 8 Coagulation 9 Flocculation 10 Sedimentation 11 Filtration 12 Water Softening 13 Ion Exchange 14 Iron and Manganese Removal 15 Activated Carbon Adsorption 16 Membrane Processes 17 Residual from Water Plant 18 Disinfection 19 Water Fluoridation 20 Health Risks References

308 311 315 321 342 343 368 371 380 384 392 404 417 435 440 444 458 463 506 513 525

Chapter 6. Wastewater Engineering

531

1 2 3 4

What Is Wastewater? Characteristics of Wastewater Sewer Systems Quantity of Wastewater

533 533 542 545

Contents

5 Urban Stormwater Management 6 Design of Storm Drainage Systems 7 Precipitation and Runoff 8 Stormwater Quality 9 Sewer Hydraulics 10 Sewer Appurtenances 11 Pumping Stations 12 Sewer Construction 13 Wastewater Treatment Systems 14 Screening Devices 15 Comminutors 16 Grit Chamber 17 Flow Equalization 18 Sedimentation 19 Primary Sedimentation Tanks 20 Biological (Secondary) Treatment Systems 21 Activated-Sludge Process 22 Trickling Filter 23 Rotating Biological Contactor 24 Dual Biological Treatment 25 Stabilization Ponds 26 Secondary Clarifier 27 Effluent Disinfection 28 Advanced Wastewater Treatment 29 Sludge (Residuals) Treatment and Management 30 Wetlands References

vii

549 551 551 556 562 562 568 572 574 581 586 586 588 592 607 617 621 696 711 726 726 735 742 752 796 861 884

Appendix A. Illinois Environmental Protection Agency’s Macroinvertebrate Tolerance List

893

Appendix B. Well Function for Confined Aquifers

899

Appendix C. Solubility Product Constants for Solution at or near Room Temperature

905

Appendix D. Freundlich Adsorption Isotherm Constants for Toxic Organic Compounds

909

Appendix E. Factors for Conversion

913

Index

919

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Preface

This manual presents the basic principles and concepts relating to water/wastewater engineering and provides illustrative examples of the subject covered. To the extent possible, examples rely on practical field data and regulatory requirements have been integrated into the environmental design process. Each of the calculations provided herein is solved step-by-step in a streamlined manner that is intended to facilitate understanding. Examples (step-by-step solutions) range from calculations commonly used by operators to more complicated calculations required for research or design. For calculations provided herein using the US customary units, readers who use the International System may apply the conversion factors listed in Appendix E. Answers are also generally given in SI units for most of problems solved by the US customary units. This book has been written for use by the following readers: students taking coursework relating to “Public Water Supply,” “Waste-Water Engineering,” or “Stream Sanitation”; practicing environmental (sanitary) engineers; regulatory officers responsible for the review and approval of engineering project proposals; operators, engineers, and managers of water and/or wastewater treatment plants; and other professionals, such as chemists and biologists, who need some knowledge of water/wastewater issues. This work will benefit all operators and managers of public water supply and of wastewater treatment plants, environmental design engineers, military environmental engineers, undergraduate and graduate students, regulatory officers, local public works engineers, lake managers, and environmentalists. Advances and improvements in many fields are driven by competition or the need for increased profits. It may be fair to say, however, that advances and improvements in environmental engineering are driven instead by regulation. The US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) sets up maximum contaminant levels, which research and project designs must reach as a goal. The step-by-step solution examples provided in this book are guided by the integration of rules and regulations ix

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x

Preface

on every aspect of water and wastewater. The author has performed an extensive survey of literature on surface water and groundwater pertaining to environmental engineering and compiled them in this book. Rules and regulations are described as simply as possible, and practical examples are given. The text includes calculations for surface water, groundwater, drinking water treatment, and wastewater engineering. Chapter 1 comprises calculations for river and stream waters. Stream sanitation had been studied for nearly 100 years. By mid-twentieth century, theoretical and empirical models for assessing waste-assimilating capacity of streams were well developed. Dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand in streams and rivers have been comprehensively illustrated in this book. Apportionment of stream users and pragmatic approaches for stream dissolved oxygen models also first appeared in this manual. From the 1950s through the 1980s, researchers focused extensively on wastewater treatment. In the 1970s, rotating biological contactors became a hot subject. Design criteria and examples for all of these are included in this volume. Some treatment and management technologies are no longer suitable in the United States. However, they are still of some use in developing countries. Chapter 2 is a compilation of adopted methods and documented research. In the early 1980s, the US EPA published Guidelines for Diagnostic and Feasibility Study of Public Owned Lakes (Clean Lakes Program, or CLP). This was intended to be as a guideline for lake management. CLP and its calculation (evaluation) methods are presented for the first time in this volume. Hydrological, nutrient, and sediment budgets are presented for reservoir and lake waters. Techniques for classification of lake water quality and assessment of the lake trophic state index and lake use support are also presented. Calculations for groundwater are given in Chapter 3. They include groundwater hydrology, flow in aquifers, pumping and its influence zone, setback zone, and soil remediation. Well setback zone is regulated by the state EPA. Determinations of setback zones are also included in the book. Well function for confined aquifers is presented in Appendix B. Hydraulics for environmental engineering is included in Chapter 4. This chapter covers fluid (water) properties and definitions, hydrostatics, fundamental concepts of water flow in pipes, weirs, orifices, and in open channels, and flow measurements. Pipe networks for water supply distribution systems and hydraulics for water and wastewater treatment plants are also included. Chapters 5 and 6 cover the unit process for drinking water and wastewater treatment, respectively. The US EPA developed design criteria and guidelines for almost all unit processes. These two chapters depict the integration of regulations (or standards) into water and wastewater

Preface

xi

design procedures. Drinking water regulations and membrane filtration are updated in Chapter 5. In addition, three new sections on pellet softening, disinfection by-products (DBP), and health risks, also are incorporated in Chapter 5. The DBP section provides concise information for drinking water professionals. Although the pellet softening process is not accepted in the United States, it has been successfully used in many other countries. It is believed that this is the first presentation of pellet softening in US environmental engineering books. Another new section of constructed wetlands is included in Chapter 6. These two chapters (5 and 6) are the heart of the book and provide the theoretical considerations of unit processes, traditional (or empirical) design concepts, and integrated regulatory requirements. Drinking water quality standards, wastewater effluent standards, and several new examples have also been added. The current edition corrects certain computational, typographical, and grammatical errors found in the previous edition. Charles C. C. Lee initiated the project of Handbook of Environmental Engineering Calculations. Gita Raman of ITC (India) did excellent editing of the final draft. The author also wishes to acknowledge Meiling Lin, for typing the corrected manuscript. Ben Movahed, President of WATEK Engineering, reviewed the section of membrane filtration. Alex Ya Ching Wu, Plant Manager of Cheng-Ching Lake Advanced Water Purification Plant in Taiwan, provided the operational manual for pellet softening. Mike Henebry of Illinois EPA reviewed the section of health risks. Jessica Moorman, Editor of Water & Waste Digest, provided 2006 drinking water regulatory updates. Thanks to Dr. Chuan-jui Lin, Dr. C. Eddie Tzeng, Nancy Simpson, Jau-hwan Tzeng, Heather Lin, Robert Greenlee, Luke Lin, Kevin Lin, and Lucy Lin for their assistance. Any reader suggestions and comments will be greatly appreciated. SHUN DAR LIN Peoria, Illinois

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Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual

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Chapter

1 Streams and Rivers

1

General

2

2

Point Source Dilution

2

3

Discharge Measurement

3

4

Time of Travel

4

5

Dissolved Oxygen and Water Temperature 5.1 Dissolved oxygen saturation 5.2 Dissolved oxygen availability

5 7 9

6

Biochemical Oxygen Demand Analysis

7

Streeter–Phelps Oxygen Sag Formula

13

8

BOD Models and K1 Computation 8.1 First-order reaction 8.2 Determination of deoxygenation rate and ultimate BOD 8.3 Temperature effect on K1 8.4 Second-order reaction

14 15 18 32 37

Determination of Reaeration Rate Constant K2 9.1 Basic conservation 9.2 From BOD and oxygen sag constants 9.3 Empirical formulas 9.4 Stationary field monitoring procedure

41 41 43 45 46

10

Sediment Oxygen Demand 10.1 Relationship of sediment characteristics and SOD 10.2 SOD versus DO

49 51 51

11

Organic Sludge Deposits

52

12

Photosynthesis and Respiration

54

13

Natural Self-Purification in Streams 13.1 Oxygen sag curve 13.2 Determination of kr 13.3 Critical point on oxygen sag curve 13.4 Simplified oxygen sag computations

55 55 62 64 77

14

SOD of DO Usage

78

15

Apportionment of Stream Users 15.1 Method 1 15.2 Method 2 15.3 Method 3

79 81 83 85

9

10

1

Copyright © 2007, 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

2

Chapter 1

16

Velz Reaeration Curve (a Pragmatic Approach) 16.1 Dissolved oxygen used 16.2 Reaeration

87 87 87

17

Stream DO Model (a Pragmatic Approach) 17.1 Influence of a dam 17.2 Influence of tributaries 17.3 DO used 17.4 Procedures of pragmatic approach

92 92 95 98 99

18

Biological Factors 18.1 Algae 18.2 Indicator bacteria 18.3 Macroinvertebrate biotic index

References

107 107 108 120 121

1 General This chapter presents calculations on stream sanitation. The main portion covers the evaluation of water assimilative capacities of rivers or streams. The procedures include classical conceptual approaches and pragmatic approaches: the conceptual approaches use simulation models, whereas Butts and his coworkers (1973, 1974, 1981) of the Illinois State Water Survey use a pragmatic approach. Observed dissolved oxygen (DO) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) levels are measured at several sampling points along a stream reach. Both approaches are useful for developing or approving the design of wastewater treatment facilities that discharge into a stream. In addition, biological factors such as algae, indicator bacteria, diversity index, and macroinvertebrate biotic index are also presented.

2 Point Source Dilution Point source pollutants are commonly regulated by a deterministic model for an assumed design condition having a specific probability of occurrence. A simplistic dilution and/or balance equation can be written as Cd 5

QuCu 1 QeCe Qu 1 Qe

(1.1)

where Cd ⫽ completely mixed constituent concentration downstream of the effluent, mg/L Qu ⫽ stream flow upstream of the effluent, cubic feet per second, cfs Cu ⫽ constituent concentration of upstream flow, mg/L Qe ⫽ flow of the effluent, cfs Ce ⫽ constituent concentration of the effluent, mg/L

Streams and Rivers

3