18.02.2020 - PSYC 207 - Theories PDF

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18.02 – PSYC 207 – Lecture OneChapter 1 – () What is Development? Systematic change and continuities in an individual that occur between conception and death. o Systematic – orderly and patterned o Continuities – remain the same or reflect that past  E. Piagets Three broad doma o Physical o Cogniti...

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18.02.2020 – PSYC 207 – Lecture One Chapter 1 – () 1. What is Development? -

Systematic change and continuities in an individual that occur between conception and death. o Systematic – orderly and patterned o Continuities – remain the same or reflect that past  E.g. Piagets

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Three broad doma o Physical o Cognitive o Psychosocial

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Involves gains, losses, changes and continuities Development incudes: o Growth o Stability o Decline

Periods of the life span

Emerging adulthood (now formally recognized phase)

2. Major Issues in Development -

Nature and nurture Critical periods and plasticity o Physical and emotional milestones Continuity and discontinuity o The self Universality and specificity o Are emotions expressed in similar or different ways across cultures?

3. Nature and nurture - Nature: The influence on development of heredity o The biological unfolding (maturation) according to genetic inputs - Nurture: The influence on development of the environment o External physical and socio-cultural experiences - Neither operate alone o Nature affects Nurture o Nurture affects Nature - Twin studies have long been used to examine the effects of heredity and environment.

4. The Ecology of Development o Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model (1979) emphasis the influence of both nature and nurture.

Child interactions with the systems and systems interacts with the child. •

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model (1979) emphasized the influence of both nature and nurture

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Bronfenbrenner bioecological model Biology and environment interact to produce development Five environmental systems that influence and are influenced by developing person: Microsystem: immediate environment (family, school, peer group, and childcare environments) Mesosystem: A system comprised of connections between immediate environments (i.e., a child’s home and school) Exosystem: External environmental settings which only indirectly affect development (such as parent's workplace) Macrosystem: The larger cultural context (Eastern vs. Western culture, national economy, political culture, subculture) Chronosystem: The environmental and historical events that occur during development. These specific incidents tend to change or transition how the individual interacts with all the rest

IMPORTANT: Goals of Studying Development

20.02.2020 – PSYC 207 – Lecture TWO THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT What is a theory? -

A coherent group of tested general propositions, commonly regarded as correct, that can be used as principles of explanation and prediction for a class of phenomena

Why do we need theories? -

Gives us a structure to engage.

Developmental issues often addressed across multiple developmental theories

Part 1 - Developmental Models -

Stage Models: Activities has similar qualities within stages but different qualities across stages. After long periods of stability, qualitative shifts in behaviour seem to happen…

The stages are fixed and Universal Freud’s Personality Theory / Erikson’s Personality Theory / Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

(Part II) - Incremental Models: Developmental change is steady and specific to particular behaviours or mental activities.

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Learning Theories o Classical conditioning (Pavlov) o Operant conditioning (Skinner) o Social learning theories (bobo doll). Bandura Information learning Theories

Changes are steady with incremental growth. Pavlov, Skinner, Bandura

(Part III) - Multidimensional Models: There is continuous growth, but there are changes in structure too – in its form and direction. -

Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model Systems Theory (Gottlieb) Lifespan Developmental Theory

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES – FREUD •

Central idea: humans have instincts that motivate behaviour

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We are largely unaware of these motivations

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They are shaped by early life experiences

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Three components of the personality: Id: impulsive, selfish part of personality – governed by the pleasure principal.

Ego: rational aspect (correlated with Executive function) that seeks to gratify instincts emerges in infancy Superego: internalized (Heavy Influence by parents) moral standards and develops between ages 3 and 6 Often in conflict and when in conflict psychothapy manifests, often we don’t know about it. Freud’s Personality Theory •

Psychological problems arise when an individual’s psychic energy is unevenly distributed across the id, ego, and superego

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Individual develops through 5 psychosexual stages, each with different demands on the developing personality

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How the child copes and how the parents interact with child as they pass through these stages

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Five psychosexual stages: 1. Oral stage 2. Anal stage 3. Phallic stage 4. Latency stage 5. Genital stage

Phallic stage (edipo complex) – identification of own gender. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory •

“Neo-Freudian” theorist

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Replaced Freud’s “psychosexual” stages with “psycho-social”stages

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Deemphasized the id (biological self and source of all psychic energy) as the driving force behind development

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More emphasis on rational ego

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More positive, adaptive view of human nature

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Eight stages of human development

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In each stage the individual faces different “crises” or developmental tasks

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Development continues through adulthood

Oral -

Trust vs Mistrust

Anal - Autonomy vs shame and doubt Phalic - Initiative vs guild Latent - Industry vs inferiority Genital – Identity vs role confusion / Intimacy vs isolation / Generativity vs stagnation / Integrity vs despair. Stage theories, more psychosocial. SEE TEXT – TABLE 2.1 (need to know the general relationships between the two).

Stages of Psychosocial Development.

Erikson heavily influenced by attachment theories. The resolution of each stage before they can move forward, you can go back and fix these things.

Psychoanalytic Theories: Contributions and Weaknesses o

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Contributions  Emphasized unconscious processes (supported by imaging technology)  Emphasized importance of early experience and emotions  Erikson: Emphasized interaction of biological and social influences Weaknesses  Not testable, and not falsifiable (certainly related to Freud)

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Describes development but does not explain how it occurs

Learning Theories: -

Direct contrast to psychoanalytical theories. Behaviourism: conclusions should be based on observable behaviour (John Watson) Strong focus on nature – importance of the environment Continuous process of behaviour change that is context specific and can differ from prson to person.

Three major theories under learning theories •

Human behavior changes in direct response to environmental stimuli

• Classical conditioning Learning relies on the association between stimuli and responses Pavlov John Watson

• Operant/Instrumental learning •

Behaviour consistently rewarded will be “stamped in” as learned behaviour, and behaviour that brings about discomfort will be “ stamped out.” Reinforcement Thorndike B.F. Skinner

• Social Cognitive Theory •

Learning is related to observing others within the context of social interactions and other external environments (modeling) Bandura

Classical conditionn

Before Conditioning: - Food – unconditioned stimulus - Salivation – unconditional response - Bell – Neutral Stimulus - Dog (on salivation) – No Conditioned Response During Conditioning: - Bell + Food – response (Salivation) – Unconditioned Response After Conditioning: - Bell – conditioned stimulus - Salivation – Conditioned Response John Watson (Behaviourist) – Its nurture (Little Albert Studies

25.02.2020 – Lecture 3 (Chapter 2) Theories of Human Development Key Developmental Theorists

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Attachment theory largely influenced by Erikson and Rogers Pavlov (animal experiments) Watson “Little Albert Studies – fear response in baby Albert, rat” famous studies on associative learning (in favour of nurture) System theories - Focuses on the role of environment

Skinner (Operant learning) -

Behaviourism

Thorndike’s – Law of Effect (1950) - Thorndike’s Theory that behaviour consistently rewarded will be “stamped in” as learned behaviour, and behaviour that brings about the discomfort with be “stamped out” This is broken up into two domains: Reinforcement (Increasing Behaviour) Punishment (Decreasing Behaviour)

(Drugs / Alcohol) Negative / Positive Reinforcement: - Taking drugs and alcohol feels good. That feeling goods “is a part of the pathway to addiction” not the only one (Positive Reinforcement). However, that feeling good leads you to take more drugs. (Negative Reinforcement) explains why people who are addicted to a drug continues to use ( they get withdrawal with the removal of the drug – not a pleasant experience). Therefore, the use of drugs removes withdrawal state. So, drug addiction can be explained to both positive and negative reinforcement If you have a parent or a pet: - (use learning behaviours): Positive punishment (spanking) you increase spanking to decrease behaviour Negative punishment - (remove X-box), if you continue with the behaviour will loss the X-box.

Operant Conditioning Chamber

Social cognitive theory…. Formally called social-learning theory.

Formerly called social-learning theory -

Emphasizes the motivation, self-regulating role of cognition Emphasizes the roles of thinking & social learning in behaviour

Observational learning -

Accomplished by observing models Bobo doll study

LEARNING THEORIES – Contributions and Weaknesses Contribution: -

Theories are precise/testable Principals apply across the life span Practical applications are possible

Weaknesses -

Inadequate accounts of developmental changes Little consideration of genetics and maluration

Humanistic Theories – Maslow and Rogers -

Has at its focus the individual and individual development Humanistic psychology: mid 20th century and developed in reation to psycholanaytic theory and behaviourism Empasies indiviuals inherent drive towards self-actualization

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Maslow – Hierachy of needs o o o o o

Physiocolgical Safety Beloning Esteem Self-actualization

Rogers – Positive Psychology movement Unconditional regards and acceptance.

HUMANISTIC THEORIES – Contributions and Weaknesses Contributions - Focused on psychological wellness as more than simply absence of disease - Focus on positive dimensions - Foundation for positive psychology

Weaknesses - Initial theories and concepts too broad and hard to measure - Universality of hierarchy questioned

Cognitive Theories Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) – (stage theorist) -

Much of Piaget’s work focused on observation of babies interacting with their environments: o Sucking of objects in mouth o Following moving objects with the eyes o Closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm (palma grasp)

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development -

Cognitive development: A progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience.

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Children construct and understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment. Development occurs as we fit new information into pre-existing cognitive schemas o Schema: A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information

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Child learns through Adaption Adaption consists of Assimilation and Accommodation

Piaget’s – is a constructiveness (children actively engaged with the world around them, so they are actively engaged in their own cognitive development. They do that by their interactions with the world and revising their understanding of the world based on those interactions. Understanding the world is through schemas; schemas are flexible and adaptable, they child adapts through the process of Assimilation and Accommodation. Example: Young child referring to all four leggaed creature as a horse. However, either with th help of others or developing their own understanding of certain characteristics map onto what he or she understand as a characteristic of a horse, while other characteristics don’t. So the child then has to Change their schemes (horse – zebra) change understanding of the world. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory (stage theorist) -

Children’s reasoning and understanding emerge naturally in stages The capacity to think logically about both concrete and abstract contents evolves in four universal stages: o 1. Sensorimotor stage (Birth-2)  Different types of cognitive processes. o 2. Preoperational thought (Age 2-7) o 3. Concrete operational though (Age 7-12) o 4. Formal operational though (12-adulthood)

Vygotsky – Contextual Theories Vygotsky – the social environment is necessary for the cognitive development of the child. -

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Social constructivism: social interaction is a fundamental aspect in the development of cognition. Disagrees with universal stages Cognitive development is shaped by social cultural context.

Child develops cognitively no just through exploration but through a more knowledgeable other. Bike riding (zone of proximal development).

Information processing – Cognitive Theories -

Information processing approach o Examines fundamental processes of attention, memory, decision-making, etc.

Cognitive Theories – Contributions and Weaknesses -

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Contributions o Well researched, mostly supported o Influenced education and parenting o Vygotsky highlighted importance of social interaction and culture Weaknesses o Too little consideration of motivation/emotion o Piaget underestimates some abilities o Little emphasis upon parent and caregivers

Systems Theories -

Systems theories o Bronfenbremmer’s bioecological model  An individual’s characteristics are embedded in and interact with environmental systems.  Development is multi-directional and muti-factorial o

Gottlieb’s epigenetic psychobiological systems

Should read about Gottlies – research but mostly concentrate on Bronfenbremmer

Read chapter 3.1 and 3.2

27.02.2020 - Lecture 4 - GENES, ENVIRONMENT AND THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE - Chapter 3 Prenatal Developmental Stages • •

Germinal 0-2 weeks

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Embryonic 3-8 weeks

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Fetal week 9-birth

Germinal Stage: Conception and early growth -

Conception – union of egg from mother and sperm from father. Nuclei merge. Gametes– reproductive cells (egg and sperm) contain only half genetic material of all other cells in body Gametes produced by special type of cell division – Meiosis.

Zygote (fertilized egg) contains 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)

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22 pairs are matched (autosomes) 23rd pair (the sex chromosome) Female zygote: 2 X chromosomes; Male: X from mother and Y from father Cell division begins hours after conception o Mitosis: cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus

The Genetic Code •

Chromosomes: a molecule of DNA that contains the instructions to make proteins - Proteins are biological building blocks.

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The instructions are organized into genes, the basic unit for transmitting heredity.

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Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), and about 25,000 genes.

Alleles: variants of particular genes -

Casby Study (Dunedin longitudinal study) – serotonin transporter genes, can have different predictive powers.

INDIVIDUAL HEREDITY – UNIQUENESS AND RELATEDNESS • • •

Genes contribute to differences among humans Genetic similarity of parent and child • Half chromosomes from each parent Genetic similarity of siblings • Siblings share half their genes on average • Identical twins are genetically identical • Fraternal twins as genetically alike as siblings

Mechanisms of Inheritance

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Single gene-pair inheritance o A dominant gene trait will be expressed o A recessive gene trait expressed only when paired with another recessive gene

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Sex-linked inheritance o Characteristics influenced by single genes only found on the sex chromosomes

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Polygenic inheritance o one characteristic is controlled by two or more genes. Genes are “large in quantity but small in effect.” For example, height, weight, intelligence, and personality

Often, genes influence development in relation to the environment •

The 2 primary forces that affect development

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Heredity (genes): instructions that tell molecules in the body how to form and organize to build and maintain our body.

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Environment- development takes place in the outside environment and developmental course is influenced by the context in which it exists

The extent to which the predictive X independently (main effect). what is the main effect of environment alone that contributes to the risk of alcoholism? What is the main effect of genetics on alcoholism? If there are individual that have a genetic risk for alcoholism how the environment increases or decrease that risk. At a genetical level this can be seen as Epigenetics. •

Epigenetics: the study of biological mechanisms that will switch genes on and off. It doesn’t alter the genetic sequence but alters their expression.

Terms

Genotype - The genetic makeup of a given individual - Set of inherited traits, although the expression of the gene is the Phenotype.

Phenotype - The traits that are expressed in the individual - Combination of genotype and modifying experiences in the environment

Coaction -

Older paradigm: Additive model of behavior genetics, phenotype = genes + environment Newer paradigm: Coaction – Contributions of genes and environment do not just add up, but interact in complex ways. In some environments, genes play a major role in affecting behaviors, in other environments, the same genes have less influence on outcomes.

Studying Genetic and Environmental Influences •

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Twin studies o Dizygotic (fraternal) twins result from two sperm penetrating two ova, and share 50% of their genes. (Minnesota Twins Study) o Monozygotic (identical) twins originate from one zygote, and share 100% genes. o Studies of twins reared apart and together Adoption studies o Examine similarity to biological/adoptive parents Family studies o Study siblings Molecular genetics o Analysis of particular genes (and gene variants (alleles) and their effects

Heritability •

The proportion of all the variability in a particular trait within a large...