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Chapter 3—Graphing and research design Group versus single subject design - In Group design there is a lot of data because of the N size (though the measure may only be pre vs post). In a single subject design, there is a lot of data because of repeated measures of an individual subject’s behavior - In group designs, the experimental comparison is often between subjects. In single subject, the experimental comparison is usually within subjects - In group designs, replication occurs by conducting a new experiment. In SS designs, replication can occur within and across subjects - With group designs, data analysis is usually statistical. With SS design, data analysis is usually visual - Visual analysis—Inspecting the plotted data without reference of inferential statistics; the response is derived from a history of data analysis, clinical , or scientific experimental question - Did a meaningful change in behavior take place? - To what extent was a change in behavior attributable to a change in the IV?

Baseline logic - Baseline—allows you to predict the level of behavior in the absence of an intervention. A priori -

determinations of the number of required data points is not recommended (need to look for trends) Steady state—No trend. Fewer data points are required when behavior is steady (minimal variability) Variability—high fluctuating levels of behavior. More data points required. Data can be “steady” in its variability Trend—the overall direction taken by a data path. Usually look for no trend in baseline; however, a trend in the opposite direction of desired or predicted effects is “okay”, particularly in applied work

Design logic and replication - Replication—repeating a previously observed change with further manipulations of the iV • This is why one subject A-B designs are unacceptable: do not show replication • Increases the likelihood that a change was a function of the IV • Demonstrates the reliability of behavior change - Direct replication—exact duplication of a previous experiment to ensure same results - Systematic replication—duplication of an experiment under varying, perhaps analogous, conditions

Graphing - Used to demonstrate functional relationships

- Shows the level of behavior over time - Easier to compare the level of behavior before and after treatment - “Baseline logic”

Research in Behavior Analysis - Purposes • Evaluate the effectiveness of treatment • Demonstrate a “functional relation” between environmental events and behavior*** - Scientific method • Measure the dependent variable (target behavior) • Manipulate the independent variable (environment/treatment) • Demonstrate a change in the target behavior • Replicate - Outcome • Show that the environmental event/treatment “caused” the behavior to change • Better way to say it: “The independent variable exerts functional control over the dependent variable”

Research process - Identify the research question or a clinical problem (increase or decrease behavior) - Develop a behavior recording plan • Identify and define the target behavior • Who, when, and where to observe • Recording method • Recording instrument - Train and manage observers - Choose appropriate research design - Data collection/reliability observations - Collect baseline data - Manipulate the independent variable - Generalization and maintenance assessments - Social validity assessments

Research designs - A-B design • One baseline and one treatment phase - (A= baseline B= treatment) • Not a true research design/no replication • Does not demonstrate a functional relationship • Used in clinical practice, self-management projects - A-B-A-B reversal design • Baseline and treatment phases implemented two or more times for one behavior of one participant

• Demonstrates a functional relation • Considerations

- Is the behavior reversible? - Should treatment be removed? - Possibility of “sequence effects?”

- Multiple baseline designs • Across participants - Two or more participants with the same target behavior - Treatment is staggered over time across participants • Benefits—no need to re-expose client to maintaining conditions - Drawbacks—no within-subject direct replication. Produce only between subjects replication

• Across behaviors - Two or more behaviors of the same participants - Treatment is staggered across the behaviors Across settings • - Two or more settings with the same target behavior of the same participant - Treatment is staggered across settings - Multiple baseline designs demonstrate a functional relationship - Treatment is replicated across two or more baselines

- Alternating treatments design • Compare baseline and treatment or two treatments • Conditions are alternated rapidly ((every other day/session) • Functional relationship demonstrated when the data are separated between the two conditions

• Also called “multi-element” • Benefits—allows direct contrast of conditions. Can produce rapid demonstration of experimental control. Produce within subjects replication

• Drawbacks—interaction effects between conditions. Failures to discriminate between the conditions (problem increases with more conditions)

- Changing criterion design • Baseline and treatment phase • Multiple performance criteria in the treatment phase • Functional relation or functional control is demonstrated when the behavior matches the performance criteria

- Combined designed—the logic of any subset of the aforementioned designs • Benefits—allows for flexibility in design as unforeseen problems arise. Can alter the design to address problems as they occur

• Drawbacks—often results are obtained in a different design for each subject (not typically a major drawback)...