Africa - lol - Ökotoxikologie: Umweltchemie, Toxikologie, Ökologie PDF

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African(Civilizations and(the(Spread(of(Islam

What do we already know?

African(Regions

Africa’s geographic features have had a significant impact on its historical development.

Early&Africa • •

•

Few$wri'en$records$of$early African$people Historians$learn$about$early African$people$through$oral tradi(ons+=+legends+&+history passed+by+word+of+mouth through+genera(ons We$also$learn$about$them$through art$and$ar;facts$that$have$been le=$behind

Geography&&&Environment • •

•

African$con;nent$is$3$;mes$larger than$the$U.S. Contains$deserts,$mountains, grasslands,$river$valleys, rainforests,$etc. 5$regions$(N,$S,$E,$W,$and$Central)

Geography&&&Environment

• •

Sahara$Desert$in$the$north$=$the$world’s$largest$desert Another$major$desert$=$the$Kalahari$in$the$south

Geography&&&Environment •

South$of$the$Sahara$lies$a great$plateau+=+high,+flat area+=$called$the$Sahel •

Sahel$=$covered$by savannas+=+treeless grasslands

Geography&&&Environment  Major highlands and mountains in eastern Africa  Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya

•

Tropical$rainforests$in central$Africa

Geography&&&Environment

Geography&and&Environment •

As$a$result$of$Africa’s$size$and$environmental$varia;ons, many$separate$socie;es,$cultures,$and$civiliza;ons$grew throughout$Africa

Africa’s&Climate • •

Africa$is$one$of$the$most$tropical$con;nents$in$the$world As$a$result$of$this$tropical$climate: 1)$Poorer$and$less$fer;le$soil$=$less$produc;ve$agriculture than$in$Eurasia 2)$Many$disease‐carrying$insects$and$parasites$=$long‐term health$problems

Africa’s&Proximity&to&Others • •

Close$to$Eurasia$and$Arabia This$facilitated$trade, interac;on,$and$cultural diffusion

Africa&in&the&Classical&Era

Nubian&Civilization • •

Nubia$=$along$the$southern$Nile;$south of$Egypt Had$close$contact$with$Egyp;ans; trade,$cultural$diffusion,$and$warfare between$the$two • •

Tombs$of$Nubian$kings$found$with gold,$jewelry,$and$po'ery$from$Egypt Same$objects$(like$ea;ng$utensils) found$in$both$civiliza;ons

Nubian&Civilization •

• •

Meroe Pyramids

•

Focused on city of Meroe after Egyptian kingdom fell apart Government = allpowerful monarch Gained wealth and military power from trading to the north via the Nile and to the east and west via camel caravans Flourished from 300 BCE to 100 CE

Nubian&Civilization Weavers Potters

Merchants

Urban Center

Slaves

Iron workers Servants Masons Laborers

e Lik

roe e M

Rural Areas Herders & farmers Rain-based agriculture

Nubian&Civilization • Fell apart in the centuries following 100 CE due to: • Deforestation • Conquest by the neighboring state of Axum

Axum • Located along the Red Sea • Very productive agricultural system • Plow-based farming • Made wheat, barley, millet, and teff • Became a trading power in Red Sea and Indian Ocean Commerce

Axum

Axumite Coins

• Many cities/ports on the East African coast got products from the African interior to sell in the Indian Ocean trading network • Ivory, rhinoceros horns, tortoiseshells, obsidian, slaves, etc. • Placed taxes on these items to bring in more revenue

Axum • Known for their stone obelisks • Royal grave markers • Funeral monuments • As a result of its trade connections, it absorbed parts of Roman culture, including Christianity

Axum&Decline • Started to decline in Heart of Islam the 600s CE due to: • Soil exhaustion and erosion • Deforestation • Rise and spread of Islam

Niger&River&Valley • City-based civilization • Biggest city = Jenne-jeno (about 40,000 people) • NO monarch, emperor, or other kind of leader controlling the cities • NOT city-states because each city did NOT have its own individual monarch and/or bureaucracy

Statue excavated from site of Jenne-jeno

City&“Clusters”: Set&Up&of&a&Typical&City Clusters of economically specialized settlements surrounded a larger central town Larger Central Town

Griots

(Praise-singers who preserved and recited the oral traditions of their socieites)

Iron Smiths

Leather Workers

Cotton Weavers

Potters

Niger&River&Valley • Artisan communities became occupational castes • Skills and jobs were passed down to children • Only allowed to marry within your own group

Niger&River&Valley • •

In$the$rural$areas$surrounding$these$urban$clusters$were$the farmers Specializa;on$occurred$even$out$here • • •

Fishing Rice$cul;va;on Animal$domes;ca;on

Dinner’s Ready!

Bantu&Migrations • • • • •

People$le=$West$Africa$for$less$populated$areas Se'led$all$across$southern$and$western$Africa Called$the$Bantu$Migra;ons$because$‐$descendants$of$the$people that$migrated$shared$elements$of$a$language$known$as$Bantu These$people$brought$their$culture$&$knowledge$as$they$migrated Bantu$languages$became$dominant$south$of$the$Sahara

Bantu&Migrations

Bantu&Migrations •

Bantu$people$were$able$to$displace,$absorb,$or$eliminate hunter‐gatherers$they$encountered$due$to: 1)$Agriculture$‐$they$had$a$produc;ve$economy$and$could sustain$a$larger$number$of$people$in$a$small$area 2)$Iron$‐‐$used$it$to$make$tools$and$weapons 3)$Disease$‐‐$they$brought$infec;ous$diseases$(like$malaria) with$them

Bantu&Africa •

Bantu‐speaking$people became$divided$into$hundred of$ethnic$groups

Bantu&Religion • • •

Bantu$people$focused$on$ancestral$and nature$spirits Power$of$dead$ancestors$accessed through$sacrifice$rituals Charms$also$used$‐‐$could$be$ac;vated to$control$the$rains,$defend$the$village, achieve$success$in$hun;ng,$etc.

Bantu&Religion •

Diviners$=$could$connect$to$the supernatural$world •

Divination Horn

Used$dreams,$visions,$charms,$or trances$to$iden;fy$the$source$of misfortune$and$to$prescribe$remedies

Bantu&Arts • • •

Sculpture$was$an$important$art$form Masks$worn$at$dances$&$ceremonies$‐‐ symbolized$link$between$living$&$dead Music$was$important$‐‐>$choral singing,$dances$for$ceremonies

Pre:Islamic(Africa • Extremely$diverse$socie;es$developed • Poli;cal$unity$was$difficult$because$of$terrain • Bantu$is$primary$language$spoken • Oral$tradi;ons;$very$few$wri'en$records • Most$communi;es$are$preliterate$(lacking wri;ng$system)

• Animis;c$and$polytheis;c$religions$common • Majority$of$Africa,$even$a=er$introduc;on$of Islam,$will$remain$in$isola;on • Many$who$are$exposed$to$Islam$do$not$convert but$remain$prac;;oners$of$their$indigenous religion

“Stateless”(Societies • Many$small$communi;es$are$poli;cally$organized$in$this$way • Authoritarian$and$centralized$empires$will$exist,$however.

• Lack$concentra;on$of$power$and$authority • Authority$and$power$normally$exercised$by$a$ruler$and$court is$held$by$a$council$or$families$or$community • Weakness$of$stateless$socie;es • No$organiza;on$to$collect$taxes$$no$effec;ve$militaries • No$consensus$$Difficult$to$resist$external$pressures • No$undertaking$of$large$building$projects • Hard$to$create$stability$for$long‐distance$trade • Internal$problems$could$be$resolved$by$allowing$dissidents$to leave$and$establish$new$villages

African(Economy • Economies$vary$by$region • N.$Africa$integrated$into$the$world economy$via$Islamic$trade$routes$and Mediterranean • Most$par;cipate$in$agriculture$and ironworking • Africans$exchanged$abundant$raw$materials for$manufactured$goods.

In?luence(of(Islam(in(Africa • 7th$century:$Muslim$armies$moved$west from$Egypt$across$N.$Africa • Spreads$Islamic$influence;$rapid$conversions

• Traders$and$travelers$brought$Islam along$pre‐exis;ng$caravan$routes. • Berbers$(people$of$the$Sahara)$begin$to convert$to$Islam • 11th‐12th$centuries:$Almoravids$and Almohads$(reforming$Muslim$Berbers) from$western$Sahara$grow$in$power • • • •

Launch$jihad$(war$to$spread$and$protect$faith) Almohads$defeat$Almoravids Almohad$Caliphate:$1121‐1269 These$groups$are$essen;al$to$penetra;on$of Islam$throughout$Africa.

Almoravids 1040:1147

Grasslands(Kingdoms

• Sahel$Grasslands:$transi;on$zone$between$Sahara$Desert$and savannahs$to$the$south • Point$of$exchange$between$North$and$Sub‐Saharan$Africa; important$region$of$trade • Grasslands$Kingdoms$=$Sudanic$States$=$Ghana,$Mali,$Songhai

Sudanic(States

• Islam$reinforced$ideas$of$kingship$and$power:$“royal$cult” • Joining$Islam$gives$rulers$pres;ge$and$associates$them$with$other$great Muslim$leaders

• Majority$of$popula;on$never$converted$but$retain$their polytheism/animism • Trade$gold$for$salt$from$Berbers$in$North$Africa • Mali,$Ghana$and$Songhai • Combine$Islamic$religion/culture$with$local$prac;ces • Each$incorporates$the$previous$kingdom;$bigger$than$last

Investigating the Sudanic Empires As you examine your reading on one of the Sudanic empires, make notes for yourself on the following world history themes to later guide your discussion. Theme$1$‐$Interac(on+Between+Humans+and+the+Environment Demography$and$disease$/$Migra;on / Pa'erns$of$se'lement$/$Technology

Theme$2$‐$Development+and+Interac(on+of+Cultures Religions /$Belief$systems,$philosophies$and$ideologies /$Science$and$technology /$The$arts and$architecture

Theme$3$‐$State‐Building,+Expansion+and+Conflict $Poli;cal$structures$and$forms$of$governance /$Empires /$Na;ons$and$na;onalism / Revolts$and$revolu;ons /$Regional,$transregional,$and$global$structures$and$organiza;ons

Theme+4+‐+Crea(on,+Expansion+and+Interac(on+of+Economic+Systems$Agricultural and$pastoral$produc;on /$Trade$and$commerce /$Labor$systems Theme$5$‐$Development+and+Transforma(on+of+Social+Structures $Gender$roles$and$rela;ons /$Family$and$kinship /$Racial$and$ethnic construc;ons/$Social$and$economic$classes

Trans‐Saharan&Trade&7th‐14th century

Trans‐Saharan Trade • Camel$allowed$the$Berbers$to$begin$traveling$across$Sahara • linked$the$Mediterranean$economies$that$demanded$gold$and$could supply$salt$to$the$sub‐Saharan$economies,$where$gold$was$abundant • consump;on$of$Saharan$salt$was$promoted$for$trade$purposes. • Arab$merchants$opera;ng$in$southern$Moroccan$towns$such$as Sijilmasa$bought$gold$from$the$Berbers,$and$financed$more$caravans. These$commercial$transac;ons$encouraged$further$conversion$of$the Berbers$to$Islam. • Increased$demand$for$gold$in$the$North$Islamic$states,$which$sought the$raw$metal$for$min;ng$(crea;ng$currency),$prompted$scholarly a'en;on$to$Mali$and$Ghana,$the$la'er$referred$to$as$the$"Land$of Gold."

Ghana 4th(–(11th(c. • 1st$great$West$African empire • Rose$to$power$by taxing$salt$and$gold • 10th$c:$rulers$convert$to Islam$while$common people$remain$loyal$to polytheism • Reaches$11th$c.$height • Almoravid$armies invaded$Ghana$in$1076

Mali • Broke$away$from$Ghana$in$13th$c. • Economy:$agriculture$and$gold$trade • Traders$spread$beyond$W$Africa • Very$wealthy$empire • Islamized$state$in$13th$c.$when$rulers$convert • Founder:$Sundiata$(dies$1260) • Credited$with$Malinke$expansion$and crea;on$of$$unified$state$with$each$tribe having$a$representa;ve$at$court • Mansa$Musa$is$successor • Jenne$and$Timbuktu • Major$ci;es$of$commercial$exchange • Scholars,$cra=$specialists,$and$foreign merchants • Timbuktu$was$famous$for$its$library$and university

Sankor Madrasah, The University of Sankore, or Sankore Masjid

Mansa(Musa • 1324:$Hajj$to$Mecca • Aligns$himself$with$elite Islamic$rulers • Brings$back$scholars, architects • Inadvertently$devastates economies$he$enters

• Indicates$wealthy, sophis;cated$empires existed$in$Africa • Es;mated$wealth:$$400 billion

Songhai/Songhay

• Independent$from$Mali$in$1370s • Prospered$as$a$trading$state$and$military$power. • Capital$at$Gao • Founded$by$Sunni$Ali$(1464‐1492) • Great$military$leader;$extended$rule$over$the$en;re Niger$River$valley. • Songhai$remained$dominant$un;l$defeated$by Moroccans$in$1591$for$ not$being$“Muslim$ enough”

In?luence(of(Islam in(Grasslands(Kingdoms • Islam$provided$universal$faith$and$fixed$law. • Rulers$reinforced$authority$through$Muslim ideology. • Many$Sudanic$socie;es$were$matrilineal$and did$not$seclude$women. • Hesitancy$over$conversion$to$Islam$since$it restricts$women$more$than$these$socie;es$did

• Slavery-and-slave-trade$was$prevalent$from Muslim$influence

Similarities of Sudanic States of Africa 1.All led by patriarch or council of elders of a leading family or group of related families 2. Usually centered on people who shared similar cultural traits like language but extended authority over nearby groups 3. Rulers considered sacred; their legitimacy reinforced by rituals & traditions 4. Rulers & the elite converted to Islam but bulk of population remained faithful to native, usually animistic, religions 5. Oral traditions/history passed down by griots

East Africa

Swahili(Coast(of(East(Africa • Coasts$enable$East$Africa$to$be$connected$to$India$Ocean trade • Islamized$trading$ports$along$coast$by$13th$c. • Kilwa,-Mogadishu,-Mombasa:$large$city‐state$centers$of Islam • Ibn-Ba:uta:$Islamic$scholar/writer$who$visits$these$ci;es • Exported$raw$materials$in$return$for$Indian,$Islamic$and Chinese$luxuries • Swahili-language$(Bantu$+$Arabic)$emerged$in$urbanized trading$ports • Rulers$and$merchants$were$o=en$Muslim. • Most$of$the$popula;on$retained$African$beliefs$and$few converted$to$Islam • Culture$=$Swahili$as$language$and$fused$African$and$Islamic prac;ces.

Trade by the 13th century: China - porcelains & silks India - cotton fabrics & glass beads Africa - iron, timber, ivory, animal hides & shells, gold (Great Zimbabwe)

Results of trade: -Intermarriage between Muslim foreigners & Bantu-speakers -Many along Swahili Coast converted to Islam because it was easier to trade with Arab Muslims -Cosmopolitan cities with stone mosques, multistory public buildings, plumbing systems -Muslim scholars from Arabia & Persia lived in the cities

Central(Africa • Across$central$Africa,$agrarian socie;es$thrived$and$kingdoms developed • Yoruba • Non$Bantu‐speaking • Highly$urbanized agriculturalists • Benin • Forms$in$14th$century$under ruler/oba$Ewuare$the$Great • Ruled$from$the$Niger$River to$the$coast$near$Lagos

• Luba • Divine$kingship • Hereditary$bureaucracy

Central(Africa(without(Islam • Both$develop$free$of$Islamic contact • Kongo • Agricultural$society,$flourishes by$15th • Gender$division$of$labor$and family‐based$villages • Largest$site:$Mbanza$Kongo$= 60,000‐100,000$people • Zimbabwe • Great$Zimbabwe,$largest$site • Dominated$gold$sources$and trade$with$coastal$ports

Christianity(in(Africa • Chris;an$states$are$present$in North$Africa,$Egypt,$and$Ethiopia before$the$arrival$of$Islam. • Egyp;an$Chris;ans,$the$Copts, had$a$rich$and$independent tradi;on$(Cop;c$Chris;anity). • The$Nubians$resisted$Muslim incursions$from$9th$un;l$13th century. • Ethiopia$con;nues$to$retain Chris;anity. • Chris;anity$will$come$later$to the$rest$of$the$con;nent$with the$presence$of$Europeans.

Coptic&Christianity&Video • h'p://www.cb snews.com/vid eos/the‐cop;c‐ chris;ans‐of‐ egypt

Global(Connections • Spread$of$Islam$brought$large$areas$of$Africa$into the$global$community$through$increasing$contact from$700‐1500$CE$between$Africa$and Mediterranean$and$Asian$civiliza;ons. • Sudanic$states$and$East$Africa

• However,$most$of$Africa$evolved$in$regions$free$of Islamic$contact$(Central$+$Southern$Africa). • Organized$their$lives$in$stateless$socie;es.

• While$no$universal$empires$and$religions$develop$in Africa,$Chris;anity$and$Islam$impact$the$region through$poli;cal,$economic,$and$cultural development.

Seeing Similarities: “Africanity” Common characteristics 600-1450: 1. Spread of Bantu-speaking peoples led to common vocabulary & word structures among different languages 2. Similar animistic religions even after spread of Islam and Christianity 3. Rituals of drumming, dancing & divination similar; as well as rhythm of and instruments for music 4. Penchant for wearing intricate, creatively-designed masks 5. Isolation of kings was common ese common characteristics despite the diversity of the continent was called “Africanity” by Belgian anthropologist, Jacques Maquet...