Aileen Wuornos - Grade: B PDF

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Trait theory is an approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists mainly focus on the measurement of traits. A trait is a moderately steady characteristic that causes individuals to act in certain ways and trait theorists have recognised that in some individuals there are significant di...

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Aileen Wuornos Psychology of Crime Case Study Word Count: 2683 words

Trait theory is an approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists mainly focus on the measurement of traits. A trait is a moderately steady characteristic that causes individuals to act in certain ways and trait theorists have recognised that in some individuals there are significant disturbances in an individual's traits that affect their cognition, regulation, behaviour or emotion. These disturbances in an individual’s traits characterise personality disorders. This essay will explore personality disorders, and explain how specific disorders from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed; DSM-V; American Psychiatric Association, 2013) can help understand what factors led to Aileen Wuornos becoming America’s most notorious female serial killer. Finally, this essay will evaluate the weaknesses of using personality disorders to explain Wuornos’s crimes. Personality Disorders A personality disorder is a constant pattern of behaviour and inner experience that is dissimilar from the expectations of an individual’s culture (American Psychological Association [APA], 2013). It is prevalent and inflexible and has been found to originate in adolescence or early adulthood (APA, 2013). A personality disorder is moderately stable over an individual’s lifetime and often leads to anguish or impairment (APA, 2013). These disorders can be categorised into three clusters based on the resemblance between them (APA, 2013). The ‘odd or eccentric’ disorders are listed in cluster A and they include, paranoid, schizotypal and schizoid personality disorders (APA, 2013). Whereas, cluster B disorders are characterised by the emotional or erratic and include, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic and antisocial personality disorders. Finally, cluster C is the anxious or fearful group comprising of avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders (APA, 2013).

Aileen Wuornos Wuornos was born on February 29th 1956 and she is most commonly known as an American serial killer. She killed seven men in Florida between 1989 and 1990 by shooting them using a 0.22 calibre handgun (Wuornos & Berry-Dee, 2006). Wuornos committed the murders whilst she was working as a prostitute and she argued that they were carried out in self-defence. She claimed that her victims had either raped or attempted to rape her, however, at other times she stated that she was attempting to rob them (Wuornos & Berry-Dee, 2006). Wuornos was convicted and sentenced to death for six of the murders and she was executed by lethal injection on the 9th of October, 2002 aged 46 (Wuornos & Berry-Dee, 2006). Wuorno’s Traits During Wuornos’s childhood she was described as avoidant, dismissive, hostile, a social outcast, impulsive, insensitive and ignorant (Arrigo & Griffin, 2004). Wuornos’s aunt stated that she was short-tempered as a child and described her as aggressive. She stated that this made it difficult for her to sustain friendships and she would frequently end up fighting with other children (Myers, Gooch, & Meloy, 2005). Additionally, between the age of nine and fourteen, she set three fires, at her school, her home and a field. Similarly, during her preadolescent years she was described as unpredictable and high tempered (Arrigo & Griffin, 2004). Russell (1992) further states that she was labelled a ‘whore’ in her community as she performed sexual acts with boys for money and other items. Moreover, during Wuornos’s teenage years she was described as deviant as she began shoplifting and committing other minor offences, that contributed to her overall extensive criminal history (Arrigo & Griffin, 2004). She had a pattern of running away, hitchhiking, drinking and using drugs and this deviant behaviour continued into her adulthood however, morphed into acts such as binge drinking, philandering and spending all of her money (Arrigo & Griffin, 2004).

Wuorno’s Traits and Borderline Personality Disorder The specific traits that Wuornos possessed provided evidence for a diagnosis of borderline personality disorder (BPD). BPD is recurring behaviour that begins in early adulthood characterised by an instability in self-image, interpersonal relationships and affects, marked by impulsivity. This behaviour can be present in a range of different contexts (APA, 2013). Using the DSM-V Wuornos traits and behaviours can be aligned with the criteria for BPD. Firstly, Wuornos knew that her girlfriend, Tyria Moore disapproved of her prostituting and thus her murders can be seen as frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment, where she may have thought that if Ty found out about her continued prostitution that she would leave her (Lukacs, 2017). Secondly, Wuornos had a pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships characterised by alternating between extremes of idealisation and devaluation (APA, 2013). Her relationship with her grandfather was characterised by severe abuse, with her grandmother ignoring the abuse and emotionally neglecting her (Arrigo & Griffin, 2004). She was also married for a period of only 9 weeks to a wealthy yacht club president, and finally, she had a homosexual relationship with woman named Tyria (Biography.com., 2015). Thirdly, Wuornos had recurrent suicidal behaviour and had attempted suicide six times between the ages of 14 and 22. For example, she shot herself in the stomach and she overdosed on tranquilisers (Pearson, 2007). Additionally, according to Arrigo and Griffin (2004) she displayed impulsivity in more than two of the required areas for BPD including, spending, promiscuous sex, substance abuse, reckless driving as well as fire-setting, and in 1974 she was imprisoned for convictions of discharging a firearm from a vehicle, grand larceny, drunk driving and disorderly conduct (Crime and Investigation Channel, 2014). She also had anxiety, affective instability due to intense mood swings as well as inappropriate and intense anger which she found difficult to control (Myers et al., 2005). Finally, Wuornos displayed chronic feelings of emptiness, which is where an individual is

easily bored and constantly seeks out something to do. This could explain her drinking, substance abuse, prostitution and other criminal convictions such as stealing and assault (Russell, 1992). Literature to Support the Link Between these Traits and Criminal Behaviour There is a vast amount of literature exploring the link between BPD and violent behaviour which is associated with crime. Firstly, Raine (1993), investigated the relationship between BPD and crime and proposed that unique traits or characteristics that are associated with BPD such as intense anger, instability, unstable and intense interpersonal relationships and impulsivity predisposes individuals with this disorder to violent behaviour. To determine this, Raine (1993) studied 37 English prisoners consisting of 13 murderers, five violent offenders, and 19 nonviolent offenders. Raine (1993) found higher borderline personality scores in murderers and violent offenders, compared to nonviolent offenders. Specifically, unstable, intense relationships and instability were significant borderline traits that were higher in the murderer and violent offender’s group. Moreover, research by Tardiff (2008), found that individuals with BPD frequently display anger and violence towards others. In between their violent episodes, Tardiff (2008) stated that these individuals participate in an extensive number of impulsive behaviours that make them susceptible to engage in crime and other violent behaviour. Examples of these impulsive behaviours that increase and individual’s vulnerability to crime include, selfmutilating or attempted suicide, excessive spending, imprudent sexual behaviour, drug abuse, shoplifting, and reckless driving (Tardiff, 2008). Furthermore, Sansone and Sansone (2009) reviewed recent research that examined the prevalence of BPD in prison populations. After conducting this review, they concluded that there is a higher rate of BPD in prison inmates and that the rates of BPD in female offenders are invariably higher than those in male offenders (Sansone & Sansone, 2009). During

Sansone and Sansone’s (2009) review they found that, among inmates, factors such as childhood sexual abuse, violent offences and being female were all factors that were associated with an increased likelihood of BPD. Thus, it is clear that Wuornos displayed a number of the traits and characteristics associated with BPD. In turn, research that has explored the relationship between BPD and crime has found that individuals with BPD are predisposed to act in a more violent and impulsive way compared to individuals without BPD. Additionally, it was found that women and victims of child abuse; which aligns with characteristics of Wuornos’s childhood, are more likely to have BPD and as previously mentioned this increased the likelihood of an individual engaging in violent behaviour and other deviant activities. Therefore, BPD can be used as a significant factor to explain Wuornos’s offending. Wuorno’s Traits More recently, through observing interviews that were conducted whilst Wuornos was in prison there were observable signs that she was depressed, exhibited trauma, mistrust, blame of others and fearfulness (Biography.com., 2015). Other traits and characteristics that were observed include, issues with abandonment and rejection, anxiety, impulsivity and hostility (Biography.com., 2015). Wuorno’s Traits and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Therefore, Wuornos also exhibited many of the traits and characteristics that are associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). According to the DSM-V, PTSD is described as changes in a person’s personality that has emerged and perseveres after an individual has constant exposure to trauma or has been exposed to a traumatic event (APA, 2013). Using the DSM-V, Wuornos traits and behaviours can be aligned with the criterion for PTSD. Wuornos met criteria A; a stressor, as she had direct exposure to sexual violence and

other abuse. She also evidenced three of the five listed symptoms for criteria B; intrusion symptoms. She had flashbacks and could easily recall her traumatic events, she had emotional distress after repeated exposure of trauma and she exhibited tremor, which is significant evidence of physiological reactivity. Additionally, Wuornos met criterion C as she displayed both trauma-related thoughts or feelings and trauma-related external reminders. Moreover, criterion D is negative alterations in cognitions and mood. Although only two of the sub-criteria are required, Wuornos fulfilled three. She had negative views about herself and the world, distrust of men as she blamed them for both the traumatic event and for her subsequent behaviours and negative emotions such as anger and shame were also expressed. Finally, Wuornos exhibited hypervigilance as well as aggressive and reckless behaviour which met criterion E. Literature to Support the Link Between these Traits and Criminal Behaviour

According to research the percentage of child abuse victims that will eventually develop PTSD is between 25 and 65 percent (Albach & Everaerd, 1992; Kiser, Heston, Millsap & Pruitt, 1991). Loeber, Farrington, Stouthamer-Loeber, Moffitt, and Caspi (1998) furthers this statement and links it to crime by suggesting that individuals who experience PTSD as a result of childhood abuse or other traumas later in life have double the risk of criminality. This is because offending can be a result of both immediate and long-term antecedents (Loeber, Farrington, Stouthamer-Loeber, Moffitt, & Caspi, 1998). To support this research Teplin, Abram, and McClelland (1996) found that posttraumatic stress disorder is the most common disorder among females on remand with a prevalence rate of 33.5 percent for lifetime PTSD. Similarly, Jordan, Schlenger, Fairbank, and Caddell (1996) found that the percentage of women in prison that have experienced at least one traumatic event during their lifetime was between 78 to 85 percent and Greenfeld, and

Minor-Harper (1991) found between 23 and 48 percent of women inmates reported that child abuse was the most common trauma that they experienced in their life.

Finally,

another piece of literature that can be used to support the evidence that Wuornos suffered from both BPD and PTSD is the research conducted by Zlotnick (1997). Zlotnick (1997) found that incarcerated women with past or current PTSD had a higher prevalence of major depression, BPD and lifetime substance abuse before incarceration than those without PTSD. Therefore, this research supports the link between individuals suffering from both BPD and PTSD.

Evidence to Support why Wuornos Exhibited these Traits Aileen’s childhood was characterised by neglect as well as, emotional, physical and possible sexual abuse by one of her family members (Arrigo & Griffin, 2004). She was raised by her alcoholic grandparents and she described abuse committed by her grandfather. She recalled a number of occasions where she was beaten naked, and was verbally abused by her grandfather who often told her that she was “worthless” or “evil” (Russell, 1992, p. 11). The abuse Wuornos received at the hands of her grandfather can be used to explain why she displayed suicidal behaviour, aggression and intense anger that she found difficult to control and this behaviour was used to diagnose her with BPD. Similarly, while still an adolescent, Aileen claims that she was raped on numerous occasions and while working as a prostitute she claimed to have been beaten and raped multiple times (Myers et al., 2005). In addition to her childhood abuse, this can be used as supporting evidence to explain why she exhibited traits such as such as trauma, depression, anxiety, impulsivity and hostility which were used to diagnosed her with PTSD. Furthermore, until Wuornos and her brother Keith were 11 years old, they thought that Lauri and Britta Wuornos were their parents, however they were actually their maternal

grandparents (Biography.com., 2015). Also, at the age 11 there were made aware that their ‘brother and sister’ Barry and Lori were actually their Uncle and Aunt. Finally, they were told that the eldest child, Diane was actually their mother and that she had abandoned them as babies (Biography.com., 2015). Thus, Wuornos’s background demonstrates the evidence of a pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships characterised by alternating between extremes of idealisation and devaluation. Combined with the abuse she received, there is significant evidence to support her diagnosis of BPD. Finally, Wuornos was had issues with abandonment and anxiety. This can be explained by the trauma she experienced during her childhood, being ‘abandoned’ by multiple of her immediate family members. For example, Wuornos’s mother abandoned her when she was four years old leaving her with her grandparents, she never met her father because he was arrested and committed suicide when she was a child, and both her brother and grandmother died of cancer while she was a teenager (Arrigo & Griffin, 2004). Weaknesses of this Approach for Wuornos Aileen Wuornos exhibited the many of the traits and characteristics listed in the criteria to diagnose an individual with the personality disorders; BPD and PTSD. However, she did not meet all the criteria for BPD. Wuornos did not exhibit signs of stress-related paranoid ideation or severe dissociative symptoms. Similarly, Wuornos did not meet all of the criteria for PTSD. She did not meet criterion H; exclusion. She had been a recreational drinker from a young age. Myers et al. (2005) reported that she started drinking alcohol regularly at age 12 and used drugs periodically throughout her life. Therefore, substance abuse cannot be ruled out as a factor that could be the cause of her symptoms. Also, she did not display dissociative symptoms and it is unknown if her PTSD symptoms had begun during the period of the murders. Another problem with using trait theory, specifically personality disorders to explain

why Wuornos became a serial killer is because it may not be the only or the best suited theory to explain her crimes. For example, attachment theory would explore her childhood which was characterised by abandonment, abuse and neglect, thus forming the link to how she was unable to form bonds and attachments with her primary caregivers therefore explaining how Wuornos was able to commit murder in such as remorseless and calculated fashion (Shipley & Arrigo, 2004). Also, Banduras social learning theory could have been used to explain Wuornos’s crimes. In Wuornos’s case her hostility, anger, aggression and impulsivity could be explained as she observed her grandfather model impulsive, aggressive and violent behaviour against her brother and herself, and in turn, he was rewarded with power over the children (Arrigo & Griffin, 2004). Aileen Wuornos was an American serial killer. Her life was characterised by abuse and violence and in turn many people described her personality as being shaped by this behaviour. Wuornos had numerous psychiatric evaluations conducted on her whilst she was in prison and many of the traits and characteristics that psychiatrics found, met the criteria to diagnose Wuornos with BPD as well as PTSD. There has been a vast amount of research and literature produced that has linked the traits that characterise these disorders with violent behaviour which can predispose individuals to crime. Thus, personality disorders can be used in order to explain why Wuornos became a serial killer.

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Youth Study. Studies on Crime & Crime Prevention, 7(2), 141-171. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1998-12739-001 Lukacs, D. (2017). Meet Tyria Moore: 10 Facts About Aileen Wuornos's Girlfriend. Retrieved from https://serialkillershop.com/blogs/true-crime/meet-tyria-moore-10facts-about-aileen-wuornoss-girlfriend Myers, W. C., Gooch, E., & Meloy, J. R. (2005). The role of psychopathy and sexuality in a female serial killer. Journal of Forensic Science, 50(3), 1-6. doi: 10.1520/JFS2004324 Pearson, K. (2007). The trouble with Aileen Wuornos, feminism's “first serial killer”. Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 4(3), 256-275. Doi: 10.1080/14791420701472791 Raine, A. (1993). Features of borderline personality and violence. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 49(2), 277-281. doi: 10.1002/1097-4679(199303)49:23.0.CO;2-C Russell, S. (1992). Damsel of death. Lond...