Alan Bryman-Social Research Methods, 4th Edition-Oxford University Press (2012).pdf PDF

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Social Research Methods This page intentionally left blank Social Research Methods Alan Bryman Fourth edition 1 3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship...

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Social Research Methods

This page intentionally left blank

Social Research Methods Alan Bryman Fourth edition

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Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Alan Bryman 2012 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First edition 2001 Second edition 2004 Third edition 2008 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Library of Congress Control Number: 2011938966 Typeset by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong Printed and bound in China by C&C Offset Printing Co. Ltd ISBN 978–0–19–958805–3 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

For Sophie and Daniel

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Acknowledgements

Many people have helped me with this book, many of them unwittingly. Generations of research methods students at Loughborough University and the University of Leicester have plied me with ideas through their questioning of what I have said to them. I wish to thank several people at or connected with OUP: Tim Barton for suggesting to me in the first place that I might like to think about writing a book like this; Angela Griffin for her editorial help during the passage of the first edition of this book; Patrick Brindle and Katie Allan for their help and suggestions during the preparation of this revised edition; Angela Adams for her constant support and encouragement with the revised and third edition; Kirsty Reade for copious support and suggestions in the course of preparing the fourth edition; Hilary Walford for her attention to detail when copy-editing the typescript; Philippa Hendry for steering the production of the book; and Sarah Brett and Lucy Hyde for help with earlier editions. I also wish to thank Alan Beardsworth for his helpful and always constructive comments on drafts of the first edition of the book and Michael Billig for valuable comments on part of the first edition. I would like to say a big thank you to Emma Bell who worked with me on the first, revised, and third editions of the business school adaptation of this book, Business Research Methods. Many of the changes that have been incorporated in the present

edition were developed in conjunction with her. I also wish to thank Alan Radley, Darrin Hodgetts, and Andrea Cullen for their permission to include two photographs from their study of images of homelessness and to Sarah Pink for her permission to use an image from her research on women and bullfighting. I also wish to thank the Nottingham Evening Post for their kind permission to reproduce two newspaper articles in Chapter 13. The photograph in Plate 19.5 is Copyright DaimlerChrysler Corporation and is used with permission. I wish to thank the students who completed the questionnaires that were used for preparing the ‘Student experience’ features of this new edition. I also wish to thank the reviewers who prepared helpful comments on the previous editions for Oxford University Press. Finally, I would like to thank Sue for all the hard work she has put into proof-reading this and earlier editions of the book. I rely very much on her attention to detail. As usual, Sue, Sarah, and Darren have supported me in many ways and put up with my anxieties and with my sudden disappearances to my study. When Sarah became a university student herself, she gave me many insights into a consumer’s perspective on a book like this, for which I am grateful. Everyone except me is, of course, absolved of any responsibility for any of the book’s substantive deficiencies.

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Brief contents

Detailed contents

xi

About the author

xxiv

Introducing the students

xxv

Guide to the book Guided tour of textbook features

xxxi xxxvi

Guided tour of the ORC: lecturer resources

xxxviii

Guided tour of the ORC: student resources

xxxix

Abbreviations

xl

Part One

1

1 2 3 4 5 6

3 18 44 79 97 129

The nature and process of social research Social research strategies Research designs Planning a research project and formulating research questions Getting started: reviewing the literature Ethics and politics in social research

Part Two 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

The nature of quantitative research Sampling Structured interviewing Self-completion questionnaires Asking questions Structured observation Content analysis Secondary analysis and official statistics Quantitative data analysis Using IBM SPSS for Windows

Part Three 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

The nature of qualitative research Sampling in qualitative research Ethnography and participant observation Interviewing in qualitative research Focus groups Language in qualitative research Documents as sources of data Qualitative data analysis Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis: using NVivo

157 159 183 208 231 245 269 288 310 329 353

377 379 415 430 468 500 521 542 564 590

x

Brief contents

Part Four 26 27 28 29

Breaking down the quantitative/qualitative divide Mixed methods research: combining quantitative and qualitative research E-research: Internet research methods Writing up social research

611 613 627 653 683

Glossary

709

References

718

Name index

744

Index

750

Detailed contents

About the author

xxiv

Introducing the students

xxv

Guide to the book Guided tour of textbook features

xxxi xxxvi

Guided tour of the ORC: lecturer resources

xxxviii

Guided tour of the ORC: student resources

xxxix

Abbreviations

xl

Part One Chapter 1

Chapter 2

1 The nature and process of social research

3

Introduction What is meant by ‘social research’? Why do social research? The context of social research methods Elements of the process of social research Literature review Concepts and theories Research questions Sampling cases Data collection Data analysis Writing up The messiness of social research Key points Questions for review

4 4 5 5 8 8 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 16

Social research strategies

18

Introduction Theory and research What type of theory? Deductive and inductive theory Epistemological considerations A natural science epistemology: positivism Interpretivism Ontological considerations Objectivism Constructionism Relationship to social research Research strategy: quantitative and qualitative research

19 20 21 24 27 27 28 32 32 33 34 35

xii

Detailed contents

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Influences on the conduct of social research Values Practical considerations Key points Questions for review

39 39 41 42 42

Research designs

44

Introduction Criteria in social research Reliability Replication Validity Relationship with research strategy Research designs Experimental design Cross-sectional design Longitudinal design(s) Case study design Comparative design Bringing research strategy and research design together Key points Questions for review

45 46 46 47 47 48 50 50 59 63 66 72 76 77 77

Planning a research project and formulating research questions

79

Introduction Getting to know what is expected of you by your institution Thinking about your research area Using your supervisor Managing time and resources Formulating suitable research questions Criteria for evaluating research questions Writing your research proposal Preparing for your research Doing your research and analysing your results Checklist Key points Questions for review

80 81 81 82 85 90 92 92 93 94 95 95

Getting started: reviewing the literature

97

Reviewing the existing literature Getting the most from your reading Systematic review Narrative review Searching the existing literature Electronic databases Keywords and defining search parameters Referencing your work The role of the bibliography Avoiding plagiarism

80

98 98 102 110 113 113 118 120 123 124

Detailed contents

Chapter 6

Checklist Key points Questions for review

127 127 128

Ethics and politics in social research

129

Introduction Ethical principles Harm to participants Lack of informed consent Invasion of privacy Deception Ethics and the issue of quality The difficulties of ethical decision-making New media and difficult decisions Politics in social research Checklist Key points Questions for review

130 135 135 138 142 143 143 148 149 149 153 154 154

Part Two Chapter 7

Chapter 8

157 The nature of quantitative research

159

Introduction The main steps in quantitative research Concepts and their measurement What is a concept? Why measure? Indicators Using multiple-indicator measures Dimensions of concepts Reliability and validity Reliability Validity Reflections on reliability and validity The main preoccupations of quantitative researchers Measurement Causality Generalization Replication The critique of quantitative research Criticisms of quantitative research Is it always like this? Reverse operationism Reliability and validity testing Sampling Key points Questions for review

160 160 163 163 164 164 166 167 168 168 170 173 175 175 175 176 177 178 178 179 180 180 181 181 182

Sampling

183

Introduction to survey research Introduction to sampling

184 186

xiii

xiv

Detailed contents

Chapter 9

Sampling error Types of probability sample Simple random sample Systematic sample Stratified random sampling Multi-stage cluster sampling The qualities of a probability sample Sample size Absolute and relative sample size Time and cost Non-response Heterogeneity of the population Kind of analysis Types of non-probability sampling Convenience sampling Snowball sampling Quota sampling Limits to generalization Error in survey research Key points Questions for review

188 190 190 191 192 193 195 197 197 198 199 200 201 201 201 202 203 205 205 206 206

Structured interviewing

208

Introduction The structured interview Reducing error due to interviewer variability Accuracy and ease of data processing Other types of interview Interview contexts More than one interviewee More than one interviewer In person or by telephone? Computer-assisted interviewing Conducting interviews Know the schedule Introducing the research Rapport Asking questions Recording answers Clear instructions Question order Probing Prompting Leaving the interview Training and supervision Problems with structured interviewing Characteristics of interviewers Response sets The problem of meaning The feminist critique Key points Questions for review

209 209 210 211 212 213 213 214 214 216 217 217 217 218 219 219 219 220 223 224 225 225 227 227 227 228 228 229 230

Detailed contents

Chapter 10 Self-completion questionnaires Introduction Self-completion questionnaire or postal questionnaire? Evaluating the self-completion questionnaire in relation to the structured interview Advantages of the self-completion questionnaire over the structured interview Disadvantages of the self-completion questionnaire in comparison with the structured interview Steps to improve response rates to postal questionnaires Designing the self-completion questionnaire Do not cramp the presentation Clear presentation Vertical or horizontal closed answers? Clear instructions about how to respond Keep question and answers together Diaries as a form of self-completion questionnaire Advantages and disadvantages of the diary as a method of data collection Key points Questions for review

Chapter 11 Asking questions Introduction Open or closed questions? Open questions Closed questions Types of questions Rules for designing questions General rules of thumb Specific rules when designing questions Vignette questions Piloting and pre-testing questions Using existing questions Checklist Key points Questions for review

Chapter 12 Structured observation Introduction Problems with survey research on social behaviour So why not observe behaviour? The observation schedule Strategies for observing behaviour Sampling Sampling people Sampling in terms of time Further sampling considerations Issues of reliability and validity Reliability Validity Field stimulations as a form of structured observation

231 232 232 233 233 234 236 237 237 237 237 239 239 239 243 243 243 245 246 246 246 249 253 254 254 255 261 263 264 265 266 267 269 270 270 272 275 276 277 277 278 278 279 279 280 282

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xvi

Detailed contents

Criticisms of structured observation On the other hand . . . Checklist Key points Questions for review

Chapter 13 Content analysis Introduction What are the research questions? Selecting a sample Sampling media Sampling dates What is to be counted? Significant actors Words Subjects and themes Dispositions Coding Coding schedule Coding manual Potential pitfalls in devising coding schemes Advantages of content analysis Disadvantages of content analysis Checklist Key points Questions for review

Chapter 14 Secondary analysis and official statistics Introduction Other researchers’ data Advantages of secondary analysis Limitations of secondary analysis Accessing the Data Archive Official statistics Reliability and validity Condemning and resurrecting official statistics Official statistics as a form of unobtrusive method Key points Questions for review

283 284 285 285 286 288 289 291 293 293 293 295 295 295 297 298 298 298 299 303 304 306 307 308 308 310 311 312 312 315 316 320 322 324 325 327 327

Chapter 15 Quantitative data analysis

329

Introduction A small research project Missing data Types of variable Univariate analysis Frequency tables Diagrams Measures of central tendency Measures of dispersion Bivariate analysis Relationships not causality

330 331 333 335 337 337 337 338 339 339 341

Detailed contents

Contingency tables Pearson’s r Spearman’s rho Phi and Cramér’s V Comparing means and eta Multivariate analysis Could the relationship be spurious? Could there be an intervening variable? Could a third variable moderate the relationship? Statistical significance The chi-square test Correlation and statistical significance Comparing means and statistical significance Checklist Key points Questions for review

Chapter 16 Using IBM SPSS for Windows Introduction Getting started in SPSS Beginning SPSS Entering data in the Data Viewer Defining variables: variable names, missing values, variable labels, and value labels Recoding variables Computing a new variable Data analysis with SPSS Generating a frequency table Generating a bar chart Generating a pie chart Generating a histogram Generating the arithmetic mean, median, standard deviation, the range, and boxplots Generating a contingency table, chi-square, and Cramér’s V Generating Pearson’s r and Spearman’s rho Generating scatter diagrams Comparing means and eta Generating a contingency table with three variables Further operations in SPSS Saving your data Retrieving your data Printing output Key points Questions for review

Part Three

341 341 344 344 344 345 345 345 346 347 348 349 350 350 351 351 353 354 355 355 356 357 359 359 361 361 363 363 363 363 366 368 368 372 372 373 373 374 374 374 374

377

Chapter 17 The nature of qualitative research Introduction The main steps in qualitative research Theory and research

379 380 384 387

xvii

xviii

Detailed contents

Concepts in qualitative research Reliability and validity in qualitative research Adapting reliability and validity for qualitative research Alternative criteria for evaluating qualitative research Recent discussions about quality criteria for qualitative research Between quantitative and qualitative research criteria Overview of the issue of criteria The main preoccupations of qualitative researchers Seeing through the eyes of the people being studied Description and the emphasis on context Emphasis on process Flexibility and limited structure Concepts and theory grounded in data The critique of qualitative research Qualitative research is too subjective Difficult to replicate Problems of generalization Lack of transparency Is it always like this? Some contrasts between quantitative and qualitative research Some similarities between quantitative and qualitative research Feminism and qualitative research Key points Questions for review

Chapter 18 Sampling in qualitative research Introduction Levels of sampling Purposive sampling Theoretical sampling Generic purposive sampling Snowball sampling Sample size Not just people Using more than one sampling approach Key points Questions for review

388 389 389 390 393 394 397 399 399 401 402 403 404 405 405 405 406 406 407 407 409 410 412 413 415 416 417 418 418 422 424 425 427 427 428 429

Chapter 19 Ethnography and participant observation

430

Introduction Access Overt versus covert ethnography Access to closed settings Access to open/public settings Ongoing access Key informants Roles for ethnographers Active or passive? Field notes Types of field notes

431 433 433 435 436 439 439 440 446 447 450

Detailed contents

Bringing ethnographic research to an end Can there be a feminist ethnography? The rise of visual ethnography Writing ethnography The changing nature of ethnography Key points Questions for review

452 453 455 462 464 466 466

Chapter 20 Interviewing in qualitative research

468

Introduction Differences between the structured interview and the qualitative interview Asking questions in the qualitative interview Preparing an interview guide Kinds of questions Recording and transcription Telephone interviewing Life history and oral history interviewing Feminist research and intervi...