AMST 201-02 Final - Grade: A PDF

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The final had multiple parts. I wrote about The peak of the second wave of U.S immigration, Taylorism vs “Speeding-up the gang & pacemakers”, The Progressive Era, McCarthyism, Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, U.S Invasion of Afghanistan, and Compare and Contrast the U.S military action in and U.S domesti...

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AMST 201-02 Final Brooklyn Parmley December 18, 2020

American Studies 201-02 Professor Baxter California State University, Fullerton

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The peak of the second wave of U.S immigration The first wave of U.S immigration was from the 1600s to the mid-1800s. The first people that arrived in what is now called the United States were mostly from England during the Colonial Era. In the Colonial Era people from England, France, Spain, and the Netherlands came to the America’s to start a new life, explore new territory, and exploit resources for their own country, such as gold, Native Americans, tobacco, and food. Once people began to settle and create colonies, the colonies became states, and the states forged a nation. Throughout the colonization of America, it has always experienced immigration, whether it was to escape from a country ruled by a tyrannical government or because people want to start a new life filled with possibilities and opportunities. The second wave of U.S immigration was from 1895-1924. Many immigrants came to the United States because of many factors, such as religious persecution, political oppression, and poverty. Immigrants also came to the U.S because America offered new ideas, such as civil rights, freedom of expression, religion, speech, and economic opportunities. These immigrants created a mostly rural and agricultural society during the beginning of the Industrial Era. The second peak of immigration consisted of people from Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe, that were mostly Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Jewish. These people migrated to the United States from 1895-1924 and peaked from 1899-1908. Most of the people that migrated to the United States moved to urban, industrial America, such as Ellis Island, New York, and Massachusetts, and worked as unskilled laborers. The immigrants from the second wave consisted of many Irish and Norwegians that experienced famine, also known as the Great Famine, and starvation in their own countries. The Irish were highly dependent on potatoes for sustenance, but in the mid-1800s the crop was failing

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and thousands were starving. Other immigrants, such as the Norwegians decided to settle more in the midwest where they could build houses and farm the land. Eventually, the Homestead Act was enacted in 1862 where it would grant the adult heads of the families 160 acres of public land for a minimal filing fee and 5 years of continuous residence on that land. The immigrants that came to the United States usually had very little money and no property to their name, this Act was a primary reason why many Immigrants migrated over because of a promise of land and a new beginning. Millions of people came to the U.S and took up many kinds of laborious jobs. Men took unskilled jobs such as cleaning yards and stables, pushing carts, unloading ships and other dockhand jobs, or working as carpenter’s assistants, or boat-builders. They also worked in factories with dangerous conditions no better than those in railroads or coal mines. Along with railroads and canals, Irish immigrants in New York City built streets, houses, and sewer systems. Some found work in the service industry, such as bartenders and waiters. Immigrant women worked in factories, particularly in the garment industry. These factories, like the ones that the men worked, were often cramped, dirty, and dangerous. These jobs were low paying and women were often harassed frequently by their employers, and children that worked in factories were abused and often died. With the countless newcomers, many Americans were upset that the immigrants were taking their jobs and occupying their land and the immigrant’s religious beliefs conflicted with those born in the U.S. These differences resulted in anti-immigrant sentiment and eventually the Know-Nothing Party in the 1850s and the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882 that was used to limit immigration and foreign influences in order to uphold and promote traditional American practices.

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Taylorism vs “Speeding-up the gang & pacemakers” Taylorism was a system of scientific management created by Frederick Winslow Taylor. This system of scientific management was developed in the 19th century to increase efficiency by evaluating every step in a manufacturing process and breaking it down into specialized repetitive tasks. Initially, this form of management was used as a scientific method to determine the best way for a worker to do their job, and provide proper tools and training, as well as to provide incentives for good performance. Although the original purpose of this machine was for a scientific purpose, it evolved into multiple techniques where both managers and workers could maximize productivity and quality, and also closely monitor the staff. This allowed the business to plan and control the industrial process to ensure the operation or multiple processes ran smoothly. It also allowed managers to plan and have more control of the workers’ or employees’ tasks to ensure that they were being productive, doing their jobs correctly, and meeting their quotas. This was especially important in the steel industry. However, because of the heavy reliance on machines, workers became lazier and less skilled. The Taylorism theory creates an assembly line that has unskilled workers learn an easy task which they could complete at a faster rate. These workers were very easy to replace because they were not highly skilled, it was easy to find someone else to learn the task, machines did most of the work, and countless people were looking for jobs. Some of the different techniques used in the development of Taylorism was based on the Five M’s. The Five M’s were men, machines, methods, materials, and money. Men were necessary to operate the systems or machines. Men or people were also heavily involved in the production of raw materials needed for production. Machines and methods were a part of the

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process because the managers of companies needed to use specific machines for the activities and processes they were undertaking. Money was also a key factor in Taylorism. Money was involved in the financing of such productions, if the business was achieving a higher level of production and distribution of goods, they were receiving more money, which would knock out the competition. In contrast to Taylorism, “speeding-up the gang and pacemakers” refers to the job of a pacemaker setting a certain pace for all of the workers and if somebody can not keep up with the pace, they would be replaced since there are many people in need of a job. The purpose of this was so the employees could get their work done more quickly, which means that the faster they work, there is less labor the company needs to pay for, in other words, there is a reduction in the employees’ pay, and an increase in profit for the business or manager. Employees were also given obligations or goals that needed to be fulfilled and were manipulated into thinking that other employees were doing a better job than them. The pacemakers were people that were paid to do more work or work harder to set an example for the rest of the group. Pacemakers encouraged the employees to work faster, however, once the person had become too overworked and wasn’t receiving an appropriate paycheck, the company would find a replacement. This led to a vicious continuous cycle of people being overworked and seriously underpaid to be replaced so that the business would make a bigger profit.

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The Progressive Era The Progressive Era from the 1890s-1920 was a period of widespread social activism and political reform across the United States of America. The objectives of the Progressive movement were addressing problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and political corruption. These problems included the widespread overpopulated urban towns, poverty, and the exploitation of labor. There was also the breakdown of the democratic government in states and cities due to the rise in political organizations affiliated with business interests and the growing movement toward financial security and industrial acceleration. The Progressive Era faced many challenges, some became successful and others did not. Some achievements made through the Progressive Era were the political reforms for resolving the corruption issue. The political reform movements were mostly initiated to take down “political machines” and their bosses. By eliminating these political machines, people would have a better, more direct democracy and would allow for the regulation of monopolies that were posing a great threat to people, preventing them from free trade and preventing the market from setting prices. Some of the biggest monopolies were the Standard Oil Company founded by John D. Rockefeller and the Steel Empire established by Andrew Carnegie. These monopolies and corruption issues led to the emergence of the muckrakers. Muckrakers were reform-minded journalists in the Progressive Era in the United States who exposed corrupt established institutions and leaders. These journalists posted articles in magazines, newspapers, and led strikes and riots as a form of protest. Their job was to raise awareness of injustices faced upon workers, such as dangerous working conditions, prostitution, and child labor. Eventually, this idea of the muckrakers would be turned into many books, one being The Jungle by Upton Sinclair to expose the dangerous and unhealthy working conditions

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imposed on the working class and immigrants. Other authors that exposed corruption in businesses and the government, and addressed poverty included Lincoln Steffens and Jacob Riis. Women also became more involved in exposing political corruption and advocating for women’s rights. They demanded women's suffrage, prohibition, and better schools. One of the most prominent leaders for women and civil rights was Jane Addams from Chicago and Ida Tarbell from Pennsylvania. Jane Addams was an American settlement activist, reformer, social worker, sociologist, public administrator, and author. Ida. Tarbell was an American writer, investigative journalist, biographer, and lecturer. She was one of the leading muckrakers of the Progressive Era of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and took down John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company. Other muckrakers and reformists helped implement antitrust laws and regulate so many industries relating to drugs, railroads, meatpacking, steel companies, and oil companies. These reformers and muckrakers helped establish four constitutional amendments. The Sixteenth, Seventeenth, Eighteenth, and Nineteenth amendments were constituted because of Progressive activism. These amendments resulted in a federal income tax, the establishment of a direct election of senators, prohibition, and women’s suffrage. While the Progressive Era brought much change and was successful in the upbringing of several constitutional amendments, the Progressive Era was not entirely a success. While the Progressive Era fought for equality for employees and safer working conditions, it was only exclusive to white Americans, not immigrants or African Americans. The Progressive Era experienced intense discrimination and segregation towards African Americans and frankly promoted the Jim Crow laws. The Plessy V. Ferguson U.S Supreme Court Case in 1896 case upheld the

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constitutionality of racial segregation laws for public facilities as long as the segregated facilities were equal in quality, a doctrine that came to be known as "separate but equal". However, these facilities were far from equal. This implementation of the case resulted in Jim Crow laws that were a collection of state and local statutes that legalized racial segregation, this included segregation of public parks, theaters, restaurants, waiting rooms in busses and trains stations, water fountains, restrooms, building entrances, elevators, cemeteries, and amusement-park cashier windows. These laws also forbid African Americans from living in white neighborhoods. Segregation was enforced for public pools, phone booths, hospitals, asylums, jails, and residential homes for the elderly and handicapped. Those who did not comply with these laws often faced arrest, fines, jail sentences, experienced violence, and death. While reformers fought for more freedom and rights, this was exclusive to blacks. The Sixteenth through Nineteenth amendments provided many innovations during the Progressive Era, but it did not benefit all people. African Americans were prevented from voting because state legislatures passed restrictive laws and constitutions that made voter registration and election rules more convoluted. African Americans also did not receive a proper education because there was limited funding and proper textbooks were not distributed equally. It was also extremely difficult for African Americans to find jobs where they were not overworked, mistreated, and abused. Furthermore, the Progressive Era did experience many successful changes, however, some of these significant changes were excluded from certain minorities, which led to further social issues.

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McCarthyism McCarthyism is also known as the Red Scare was developed by U.S senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin from the mid-1940s to 1950s. The term McCarthyism is derived from Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin because in the 1950s he rendered a series of investigations and hearings in an effort to expose supposed communist infiltrations in several areas of the U.S. government. Anyone prosecuted or innocently charged for being a communist came to be known as McCarthyism. In 1946, Joseph McCarthy was elected to the Senate and in 1950, he made allegations that more than 57 communists had infiltrated the State Department in a speech he gave in Wheeling, West Virginia. In 1947, President Truman had ordered background checks of every civilian in service to the government. McCarthy used this nationwide paranoia to spread fear and concern of communists invading their beloved country. After McCarthy’s allegations and Truman’s orders, there were 36 televised hearings in 1954. These hearings involved men from the United States Army where he interrogated many army and military officials, which also included many decorated war heroes. McCarthy would humiliate and attack these hard-working men that fought for their country and would question their loyalty. Eventually, the Council for the Army asked McCarthy, "At long last, have you no sense of decency left?" because of his ruthlessness and unethical approach. Despite his efforts, Joseph McCarthy was unable to form plausible charges against any person or institution. Most of the various charges against government entities that were harboring communists or sympathizers were undocumented. Regardless, Joseph McCarthy’s accusations and paranoia resulted in some people losing their jobs and others facing popular condemnation. Ultimately, McCarthy was discredited by his associates for dishonoring and embarrassing the

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Senate. The hearings ended and after McCarthy was dismissed he consumed himself with alcohol and died in 1957, three years after the hearings.

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Gulf of Tonkin Resolution The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution also known as the Southeast Asia Resolution was enacted on August 7, 1964. This gave President Johnson authorization to take any measures he believed were necessary to retaliate and to promote the maintenance of international peace and security in Southeast Asia. Congress had given President Lyndon B. Johnson authorization for this because, during the Vietnam War on August 4, 1964, two U.S. destroyers were stationed in the Gulf of Tonkin in Vietnam, while stationed they radioed back home that they had been fired upon by North Vietnamese forces using torpedoes without provocation. The United States’ only response was The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. This resolution began to serve as the principal administrative authorization that would lead to the intensification of the United States’ involvement in the Vietnam war. The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gave President Johnson unlimited war powers. The Senate passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution with only two opposing votes, and the House of Representatives passed the resolution unanimously. Congress had supported the resolution because they assumed that the President, Commander in Chief would continue to ask for reinforcements when further escalating or engaging in war tactics. However, this assumption didn’t pan out. The Gulf of Tonkin threat and the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gave President Johnson justification to further prolong the conflict with Vietnam. President Johnson and his adversaries believed that Hanoi, Vietnam’s capital, would eventually surrender when the U.S began to engage in bombing raids. When this didn’t happen, Johnson ordered the United States’ military to set in motion Operation Rolling Thunder. Operation Rolling Thunder’s mission commenced against North Vietnam to discourage the Hanoi regime's direction and to destroy the Republic of Vietnam.

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Operation Rolling Thunder was instituted on March 2, 1965, through November 1968. From 1965 through 1968, about 643,000 tons of bombs were dropped on North Vietnam and roughly 900 U.S aircraft were lost. The death toll continued to rise as Americans continued to fight in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War. Due to the many Americans leaving for war and the prolonged fight, the Johnson administration dealt with a heavy amount of anti-war sentiments. Protests and anti-war sentiments erupted throughout the United States. Protests opposing the continuation of troops being deployed in the war began on college campuses and in major cities. By 1968, the entire country was feeling the weight and impact of the war. One of the most significant anti-war movements was at Kent State in May 1970, when National Guard troops shot into a group of protesters demonstrating sentiments against the U.S. invasion of Cambodia, killing four students. By the end of the war, with the North Vietnamese invasion of the South in 1975, roughly 60,000 U.S servicemen had lost their lives alongside 250,000 South Vietnamese troops. 1.1 million Vet Cong and North Vietnamese forces died and more than two million citizens nationwide. This was the result of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. This resolution stimulated the continuation of the Vietnam War which led millions to their death.

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U.S Invasion of Afghanistan The United States has been occupying and residing in Afghanistan from 1999 to the present day. The question is why? Well, terrorism and the security of the nation are the main factors. In 1999, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1267, which created the al-Qaeda and Taliban Sanctions Committee. This committee labeled these two groups as terrorists and imposed warrants on their funding, travel, and arms distribution, the leader of these groups was Osama bin Laden. This is the beginning of the U.S invasion of Afghanistan and the terror that follows. On September 11, 2001, more than 3,000 people died from a series of terrorist attacks inflicted upon the United States by al-Qaeda operatives. On the morning of September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda operatives hijacked four commercial airliners. Two planes crashed into the World Trade Center in New York. One plane crashed into the Pentagon in Washington, DC. The last plane crashed into a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. This terrorist attack changed the U.S and affected thousands of people’s lives, on that tragic day, President George W. Bush vowed to “win the war against terrorism”. The year 2001 experienced the most change and invasion of forces in Afghanistan to prevent further terrorist attacks on the United States. Seven days after the horrific attack on 9/11, President George W. Bush signed into law of joint resolution to authorize the use of forces against those responsible for the 9/11 attack. This joint resolution is later cited by the Bush administration to be used as a legal rationalization for the U.S to take further action to combat terr...