AN Introduction TO Criminological Ideas PDF

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CRIM102 AN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGICAL IDEAS LECTURE 1 – DR CHARLOTTE BARLOW Harvard Referencing System: The Harvard system has two inter-related parts: 1. The first part of the reference appears in the body of the essay and involves providing some abbreviated information about your source materi...

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CRIM102 AN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGICAL IDEAS LECTURE 1 – DR CHARLOTTE BARLOW Harvard Referencing System: The Harvard system has two inter-related parts: 1. The first part of the reference appears in the body of the essay and involves providing some abbreviated information about your source material This will consist of the author’s family name, the date of publication of the source material and, in some instances, the page number from which the information/analysis has been derived. For example, (Garland, 2001: 4). 2. The second part of the reference involves providing full publication details of each and every source you have actually used in a bibliography at the end of your coursework. The bibliography should be in alphabetical order by author and should provide the following information: author, date, title, place and publisher. For example: Garland, D. (2001) The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society, Oxford, Oxford University Press. INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE Crime has two primary meanings:  An action or omission that is seen as an offence able to be prosecuted by the state and punishable by law.  An action or activity that is considered to be evil, shameful or wrong (not necessarily illegal). The purely legal definition of crime suggests that those who have not undergone the criminal conviction process are not to be considered criminals. For example, under this definition, Jimmy Saville would not be viewed as a criminal as he passed before any criminal activity was brought to light. “The legal definition of crime is hardly broad enough for our purpose, because the crimes which the law has designated have varied greatly from time to time and from place to place (Parmalee 1918: 8) Schur (1969) states that there are variations in what is defined as criminal in different countries, cultures and over time. The idea that crime is a social construct reinforces Schur’s theme. This is evidenced by changing laws within countries. For example, the prohibition of alcohol in the USA (18th amendment) was later repealed by the 21st amendment. This shows a fast-paced change in social views which is directly portrayed in the law. Power is held by the state (state power) which means that the state determines which behaviours are legal and illegal. This can lead to a class-based divide in the definition of crime. Dominant classes and those in power are more likely to play a key role in determining the strict definition of crime.

LECTURE 2 – DR GARY POTTER THE CRIMINOLOGICAL IMAGINATION What is criminology?  The study of crime  Measuring crime  Explaining crime  Preventing crime  Understanding crime The Governmental project = administrative criminology – CONTROLLING CRIME The Lombrosian project = why the crime happened – UNDERSTANDING CRIME 2 types of criminology: Administrative, mainstream, orthodox, traditional criminology Vs. Critical, radical, cultural, imaginative criminology Crime cannot be simply defined, it is: 1. A legal category a. A violation of the criminal law; behaviour punishable by the state. Something harmful and forbidden consisting of actus reus and mens rea, an absence of lawful excuse and a finding of guilt. 2. A social harm a. “an action or omission which constitutes an offence and is punishable by law” b. “an action or activity considered to be shameful, evil or wrong” 3. A construction a. “crimes are not, they become” A crime is not a crime, nor a person a criminal until ‘due process’ (criminal proceedings) and a guilty charge has been applied. “Innocent till proven guilty” Academic conceptions of ‘crime’. Crime can be seen as a:  Violation of the criminal law  Violation of collective conscience  Product of conduct norms  Social construct  Ideological censure  Violation of human rights  Social harm  Environmental harm  Culture Crime is not simply defined: o We can take strict legal definitions – but then we must consider the politics, social and power issues which create these definitions.

o We must consider enforcement as much as definitions of crime. o It may be more meaningful to move beyond the strict legal definitions of crime. Criminology is also not simply defined: o The study of crime and criminals and criminal justice. o Also asks what is, isn’t, should and shouldn’t be defined as crime. o Considers the politics of crime, criminalisation, criminal justice, harm, enforcement, power etc. Think imaginatively about criminology. o Think critically. o Think about social structures and power relations – whose interests are being served in definitions of and responses to ‘crime’? o Beware of the obvious, of common sense and of stereotypes.

LECTURE 3 – DR GARY POTTER BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME Positivism is an epistemological position. That us, a theory of knowledge that takes a philosophical and methodological approach to producing knowledge. It has origins in the early 1800s which means that it was shaped by the development of the natural sciences in the preceding century. Positivism takes a deterministic approach for human behaviour and believe that science can discover these determining forces. HISTORICAL APPROACH Physiognomy:  ‘Nature judge’  Judgements of character are based off of the appearance of a person.  First developed in early Greek/Roman period  Medieval England – a law stated that if two people were accused of a crime, the uglier one is more likely to be guilty.  The emergence of enlightenment and the birth of modern science in the 17th century disrepute this idea. Phrenology:  Mid-19th century.  Development and shape of the brain affected personality and social behaviour.  Joseph Gall – localisation of function in the brain. If the physical structured of the brain were reflected in the skull and crime, then this is a biological cause for crime.  Emphasised rehabilitative methods rather than retribution to inhibit criminal behaviour. They believe that crime was due to biological reasons and therefore not the fault of the offender = HEAVILY anti-death penalty.  Opposed by religious groups as they thought it to be morally dangerous to assert the brain, not the heart as the centre of reason. This approach also marginalised the role of religion and God in understanding human behaviour.  Replaced in the later part of the 19th century by the work of Lombroso on evolution and criminality. Lombroso:  Viewed as the father of ‘positivist criminology’.  Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution.  Atavism – a criminal is a biological throwback to ape-like ancestors.  Stigmata – signs of atavism (facial features) o Unusually sized ears o Wrinkles o Fleshy, swollen lips o Supernumerary of fingers, toes and nipples o Insensitivity to pain o Excessive tattooing (even though this was not innate, it was seen as a change to the body which was viewed as being able to change the biology of a person)  The Criminal Man (1876) o 383 male convicts o 21% had only one trait, 43% had 5+ stigmata

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o Estimated that 60-70% of the criminal population were atavistic o The presence of 5 or more stigmata indicated atavism. Theory of Atavism o Debated in legal and penal circles o Criticised on moral grounds from religious groups. o Criticised on methodological grounds, after more data collection by Lombroso his estimation of the atavistic form in the criminal population dropped to 33%. The Female Offender (1893) o Women are naturally atavistic – mitigated by “feminine attributes”. o If a woman is ‘too masculine’ they become monstrous and criminal. o Women should not be educated or given the same opportunities as men in case this causes them to become monstrous.

Charles Goring: “The English Convict” (1913) – there is no such thing as a physical criminal type. Compared over 3000 convicts and non-convicts showing no differences in physical measurements. Hooton: “Crime and Man” (1939) and “The American Criminal” (1939) – it is the biologically inferior, the organically unadaptable, the mentally and physically stunted and warped that are responsible for the majority of committed crimes. Ernst Kretschmer’s typology of physiques (1920s and 30s):  People with long and thin limbs and narrow shoulders and under-developed muscles with a tendency to prematurely age = More serious crimes  People who were the opposite and therefore more athletically built with a strong skeleton = More serious crimes  People who were small and round, with a pronounced tendency for a distribution of fat around the trunk of the body: Less serious crimes ‘Statistical infrequencies’ (extremes) are more likely to commit deviant behaviour. William Sheldon: “The Delinquent Youth” (1949)  Endomorphic (fat and soft) = sociable and relaxed.  Ectomorphic (thin and fragile) = introverted and restrained.  Mesomorphic (muscular and hard) = aggressive and adventurous.  Many young offenders were mesomorphic and were least likely to be ectomorphic.  Argued for selective breeding (eugenics) to maintain “good stock” and rid society of “bad stock”.  Methodological issues: o Some young offenders in the study hadn’t actually committed any real crime, while the vast majority had committed very minor (non-violent) crimes such as vandalism. o Re-analysis of Sheldon’s data based on level of offence showed that delinquencies are not significantly related to variations in Sheldon’s indexes. CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES Genetics and crime:

There is no single ‘criminal gene’ – it is an interaction between certain genes and environments. Twin Studies - Researchers have studied the role of genetics in criminal behaviour by determining the degree of concordance in the behaviour of MZ twins and comparing them with the concordance rates for DZ twins. This runs from 0% (where there is no similarity) to 100% (where behaviour is exactly the same). In this sense, if one twin is a criminal in a set of MZ twins then the other is too (100% concordance).  Christiansen (1977): o 3586 twin pairs born between 1870 and 1920 o Research design assumes that the effect of hereditary factors is determined If MZ twins have greater concordance for criminality than DZ twins. o 31% for MZ vs 12.9% for DZ  Cloninger and Gotteson (1987): o Added to the Christiansen database o Figures increased to 74% for MZ and 47% for DZ Genes play an important role in persistent offending behaviour. These studies show the powerful role genes play in influencing behaviour, as the twins all shared the same immediate social environment growing up, and the data indicates that the more DNA you share in common the more likely you are to engage in criminality, regardless of environmental factors. Methodological issues:  Definitions of criminality  Sampling issues  Environment as a confounding variable for MZ twins. Biology and social environment: Mednick et al. (1987) – studied court convictions of 14,000 adoptees and the criminal records of their biological and adoptive parents. It was found that many adoptees had criminal biological parents. There was relationship in the types of crimes committed, but where there was an improvement in social conditions there was a reduction in crime. This goes against the genetic explanation for crime. Most criminologists and biologists believe that both biology and social environment should be considered. Interactionist approach to the Nature vs. Nurture debate. Diet and crime: Neurotransmitters have a direct impact on behaviour, emotion, moods and learning.  Serotonin, Dopamine, Norephinephrine (linked to aggression, violence and territorial behaviour).  Research on habitually violent and dangerous offenders as well as impulsive offenders such as arsonists, does seem to show that they have lowered serotonin levels Production of neurotransmitters is heavily dependent on diet:  Serotonin – produced in the tryptophan, which is an amino acid found in high protein foods such as, eggs, fish, dairy products and some meats.  Dopamine and norepinephrine production depend on the amino acid tyrosine which is also found in most protein foods.

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High sugar foods, junk food, white carb loaded food can lead to glucose spikes and cause nervousness, depression, aggression, irritability and destructive outbursts, all of which can lead to criminal behaviour.

Hormones:  Adolescence and “hormonal turmoil”  “storm and stress” model of adolescence  Internal, biological cause? Gender:  Hormonal differences  Physical capabilities  Sexual characteristics and behaviours Health:  Mental health and learning difficulties  Physical health and criminal motivation  Addiction and crime Pollution:  Correlation between lead pollution and crime rates  “…childhood exposure to lead increases traits such as impulsiveness, aggression and low IQ – which can influence criminal behaviour. Taking lead out of petrol has since been linked with a 56% drop in violent crime in the 1990s.” -Haq, 2018

LECTURE 4 – KATIE BENSON Measuring Crime

WHY MEASURE CRIME?  Informing the public, criminal justice system (CJS) and researchers on the extent and nature of criminal activity. The policies of the CJS must be based on some sort of measurements of crime. Occasionally the official information is misrepresented  Determining priorities in the criminal justice system by having a clear idea of the levels and nature of criminal activities and to inform new legislation – emphasis on evidencebased policy – seeing where legislation needs to be adapted to suit the new criminal climate  Helping to evaluate crime reduction programmes through measurable outcomes – identifying the level of crime before and after a programme to measure the effectiveness of this  To provide data to develop and test theories about crime – use crime data in more indepth research UNDERSTANDING CRIMINAL CAREERS IN ORGANISED CRIME Examined characteristics, criminal histories and offence trajectories for organised crime offenders and their risk factors for subsequent involvement in organised crime. They were able to compare the data on organised crime offenders with other offenders to see any differences between the types of crime. They found a higher average age of 32 years old in those involved in organised crime and that 95% of these offenders were men. They also had more prior infractions, showing there is a pathway into organised crime rather than just someone randomly ending up in it. TRUTH ABOUT CRIME There are many sources of information about crime, every source has an inherent bias and they cannot give a full picture about the amount and type of crime and issues related to crime. Additionally, research knowledge and official statistics are usually mediated through newspapers and other media reports and this adds additional bias to the mix. Informed questioning helps you evaluate the worth of evidence in trying to solve particular problems. Being critical about the things you read, where has the data come from etc? KNOWING ABOUT CRIME We know about crime from various sources:  Direct experience  Mediated experience  Research knowledge  Official knowledge DIRECT EXPERIENCE Through personal experience as a victim, offender, relative or friend Through contact with the criminal justice system – for example through work experience or knowing people who work in the police force or court etc In personal assessment of perceived threats – the way you engage with the world in terms of threats of crime will affect how you view crime. For example, if you live in an area

with elevated levels of crime or in a situation that makes you at risk of being a victim of crime, this can affect one’s knowledge of crime. Personal experience is highly specific to the individual but contributes substantially to our understanding of the world. MEDIATED EXPERIENCE Through news organisations (newspapers, radio, TV, internet) Through articles and opinion pieces Through campaigning organisations Through entertainment (TV, film, music, computer games) Through books Your views on the levels of crime will depend on where you’re getting your information from Some, if not most, of these are heavily biased in favour of ‘newsworthy’ crimes RESEARCH KNOWLEDGE Some issues to consider:  Not only carried out by academics in Universities, it’s carried out by research institutions that focus on crime and justice issues  Factors shape the way research is conducted and the types of it, research has to get funding and sometimes funding priorities are reflected by the political climate.  Questions of objectivity – is research a form of mediation?  Limitations of research e.g. problems of access  Concerned with particular types of crime e.g. ‘fashions’ in research, what is considered important changes over time  Research can interpret as well as present information, journal articles will make conclusions about findings – these interpretations, as well as the data in the reports, must be questioned OFFICIAL INFORMATION Information known to government officials, concerned with crime that is know about either by the criminal justice system or victims/offenders Does not include hidden crime – the crime that isn’t recorded by police/noticed by victims/admitted to by offenders in surveys This uses official definitions of crime and won’t include crimes that come under the social definition of crime It measures “the action taken by persons in the social system” (Soothill et al., 2002) rather than incidence of crime WHAT ARE OFFICIAL STATISTICS? Police, courts, prisons Victim surveys – Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW) Offender surveys – Offender Crime and Justice Survey (OCJS)

POLICE RECORDED CRIME First crimes must be reported to or noticed by the police, then the police must make the decision to log it as a crime, they work to certain guidelines to determine whether to record

a crime. There is a document about the standards that police must adhere to when making these decisions: National Crime Recording Standard. A crime that comes to the attention of the police will be reported for the purposes of national statistics if:  The victim/witness believes a crime has been committed and there is no evidence to the contrary  The type of crime that is believed to have been committed is on the list of notifiable offences (less serious crimes are not on the list) HOW IS DATA RECORDED? Data is collected individually by each of the 43 forces in England and Wales, they submit this data to the Home Office monthly. After being collated, it is supplied to ONS quarterly for final preparation and publication as Official Statistics. HOW ACCURATE A PICTURE DOES PRC STATISTICS PAINT OF THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF CRIME? Figures relate to incidences that are considered by the police to be crimes – there may be variation in the ‘real’ crime levels Crimes are recorded according to guidelines (NCRS) which helps with the standardisation of this data However, there has been controversy over consistent application of NCRS in Jan 2014 UK Statistics Authority removed gold standard status Some crimes that are recorded are found not to be crimes after investigation Affected by police operational priorities – if the type of crime becomes high on the police’s agenda they will be looking for those crimes more which will lead to these crimes being reported and recorded more often PROBLEMS  Variation/inconsistency across the 43 police forces  Variation over time (recording practices, reporting by victims)  Not reporting crimes to the police for a number of reasons such as not feeling safe or feeling as though the police do not have the resources to help  Errors in recording/classification  Good for crimes that are well-reported and accurately recorded, it provides an insight into the demands being made on the police and how caseload has changed over time THE ‘DARK FIGURE’ Crimes that are not measured by the police are:  Not noticed  Noticed but not reported  Noticed and reported, but then explained away  Non-notifiable crime To estimate this figure, and to mitigate the problems of police reported crime (PRC) data the Office of National Statistics (ONS) combines PRC with Victimisation Survey data VICTIMISATION SURVEYS

Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW) – previou...