Anatomy 201 Notes PDF

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Human Anatomy learning Strategies -writing notes -do quizlets -make flashcards -Powerpoints -Follow syllabus -A chapter a week (keep up with readings ) - Making Sure you are on time(attendance is mandatory) -what study strategy and expectations for her? -Make a schedule

Anatomy vs Physiology Anatomy-study of structure and the relationship between them Physiology - the study of functions

Branches and types of anatomy/Physiology

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Six levels of Organization:

Levels of Organization: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, and organismal levels of the organization ● Simplest level: Molecular/Chemical level (atoms ● Cellular level: compose of cells ● Tissue Level: different types of cells combine to make a tissue ● Organ level: Composed of two or more tissue type ● Organ system level: related organs with similar functions ● Organism level: all parts of the human body functioning together constitute the total organism Atoms: smallest units of matter molecules: two or more atoms joined together Cellular level ● -muscle cells ● -nerve cells -epithelial cells Tissue Level ● -epithelial tissue (covers body surface) ● -connective tissue: connects and supports body organs ● - Muscular tissue contracts to make body parts move and generate heat. ● -Nervous tissue carries information from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses.

Systems of the Human Body

Endocrine: hormone producing -hypothalamus -ovraies/testes Reproductive systems -ovaries/testes Digestive

-Urinary -two kidneys -urinary bladder -urethra Cardio-vascular system

6 most important life processes of the human body Metabolism: ● the sum of the chemical processes that happen in the human body -catabolism: the breaking down of things -anabolism (the building of things) -responsiveness: body ability to detect and respond to changes to prepare for the threat Ex: diff body cells respond in a characteristic way. From the book (Nerve cells respond by generating electrical signals known as nerve impulses (action potentials). Muscle cells respond by contracting, which generates force to move body parts ) -movement: motion/movement of the whole body, single cells, individual organs movement, and structures -growth: an increase in body size that results in an increase in the size of existing cells - Differentiation is the development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state - Such precursor cells, which can divide and give rise to cells that undergo diff erentiation, are known as stem cells. ex: blood. Unspecialized cells becoming specialized cells -reproduction: refers either to (1) the formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement, or (2) the production of a new individual.

Homeostasis -why is it important? Stable internal environment Homeostasis Regulation: adjustment of physiological to maintain a balance internal environment

Homeostatic regulation Consist of 3 mechanism ● -receptor: that send nerve impulses or chemical signals ● -control center (goals is to maintain a set point) ● -effector

● Example: Thermoregulation Receptor: temp sensors ins kin Understand affarent vs efferent Command is sent out=efferent (from control cxenter/efferent) Control center center in brain hypothalamus Effectors: Receptors provide feedback to control center -effecror can either oppose or enhance the stimulus

Negative Feedback Ex: thermoregulation -when a change occurs, the feedback serves to oppose the change -Effector counters the stimulus -Most common feedback Ex: blood pressure

Positive Feedback -enhanced or enforced a change that was detected in the feedbackj -Ex: blood clotting -normal childboirth is an example (The body will detect a change and that change will be enhanced even more as it is reported so that it will be effective)

Homesostatic Imbalances When homeostasis is disrupted, disease, disorder or even death may result -Causes of Imbalances ● -the environment and your own behavior ● -genetic makeup ● -the air you breathe, the food you eat, and even the thoughts you think

Anatomical Terminology -Body Positions -Regional Names: names given to specific regions of the body for reference -Directional Names -Structure

Anatomical Positions: -Standard Position: Hands at side, palm forward,Feet Together Lying Down -Supine-face Up Prone : Facedown Anatomical Regions of the cavity -Four abdominopelvic Quadrants -Nine regions of the cavity

Directional Terms: Directional Terms -Cranial/Cephal- cardial Superior: towards head area (cranial) Inferior: towards leg area (caudal)

Lateral: away from the mid line Medial: in the midline Proximal: near the starting point of a limb attach to a trunk Distal: far away from the starting point attach to a limb Superficial: surface of the anatomy Deep: internal anatomy Posterior: back also known as dorsal Anterior: front or ventral

Sectional Anatomy -Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body Frontal Plane: aka coronal plane; divide into anterior and posterior Saggital -divide into left and right Midsagittal: equal left and right halves Parasagittal: unequal sides

Transverse Plane -divides into superior (cranial) and inferior (caudal) -Also called horizontal section

Body Cavities Functions: ● Product organs from shocks/impacts ● Permit changes in size/shape of internal organs ● -True cavity is fluid like fille and lined

Cerous Membranes Viscera-organs partially or completely enclosed the cavities(inside) Two layers of membranes -Parietal - covers internal surface of body wall/cavity -Visceral-covers the organ

Dorsal cavity -cranial(supports brain). -verteral(fluid surrounds spinal cord)

Ventral Cavity Thoracic Cavity -mediastinum-area of connective tissue surrounding esa[hagus, trachea,etc

Abdominopelvic Cavity -Peritoneal membrane -peritoneal cavity-space lined by the peritoneal membrane Subdivided into two cavities Aging -Normal process characterized by a progressive decline in the body’s ability to restore homeostasis

Medical Imaging Procedures -X-Rays: the oldest and most common imaging method Radiopacity: the ability to stop the passage of x-ray CT Scan- uses computers to reconstruct sectional views -uses x-ray source that rotates around the body MRI Scan -uses a strong magnetic field -can show more details, than a CT scan PET Scans -can evaluate metabolic and physiological activity -Requires use of a radioactive label

Ultrasound Ion: negative or positive Molecule: sharing tom s

Free radical: an unpaired electron in the outermost shell(highly reactive) Ionic bonding: either transferred (donated by another ion) Covalent: sharing electrons Polar: not shared unequally Non-polar: shared equally

Non polar covalent Shared equally

Hydrogen Bonds: -extremely weak chemical bonds -formed when a hydrogen atom is attracted to the negtive portion such as oxygen or nitrogen atom of a polar molecule Chemical Reactions Occurs when new bonds are formed or old bonds are broken

Forms of Energy -Energy is the capacity to do work -potential energy: position Chemical energy: based on bonds Exogornic: released energy

Transfer of electron Reduction: gains electron Oxidize loses electron\

Cellular Organization of the Cell: Simple Diffusion Influenced by steepness of the concentration gradient Mass of diffusion Surface area Diffusion distance

Fcailitated Diffusion -transmembrane protein helps solutes that are too polar or too highly charged move through the lipid bilayer. ● Channel mediated facilitated diffusion ● Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion

Osmosis The net movement of solvent through a selectively permeable membrane from ana area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

Tonicity -a solution ability to relates how the solution influences the shape of the body of cells Ex: siotonic solution, hypotonic solution, hemolysis, hypertonic

Primary Active transport -Energy Derived from ATP changes the shape of transporter protein which pumps a subvstance across a plasma membrane against its concentration gradient

Secondary Active transport Energy stored in H and Na isn used to drive other substances against their own concentration gradients Endocytosis Exocytosis

Active Transport in Vesicles: Vesicular Transport -endocytosis -phagocytosis . -pinocytosis

Two types; 1) Macrophages 2) Neutrophils Phagocytes;

Cell Division INterphase G1 Phase S - replicating DNA G2 Phase - cell continues to grow, prepping for cell division ‘ Mitotic Phase: Prophase During prophase chromatin condenses into chromosomes Metaphase -metaphase plate Anaphase: centromeres of chromosome split and sister chromatids are on sepertaye ends

Reproductive Cell Division: Meiosis & II -Generating haploids Mitosis and Meosis Differences Mitosis: two cells produce Meiosis: four haploid cells produce Understanding DNA

The Tissue Level of Organization Body tissues can be classified into four basic types according to their structure and function (Figure 4.1): 1. Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts; it also forms glands. This tissue allows the body to interact with both its internal and external environments. 2. Connective tissue protects and supports the body and its organs. Various types of connective tissues bind organs together, store energy reserves as fat, and help provide the body with immunity to disease-causing organisms. 3. Muscular tissue is composed of cells specialized for contraction and generation of force. In the process, muscular tissue generates heat that warms the body. 4. Nervous tissue detects changes in a variety of conditions inside and outside the body and responds by generating electrical signals called nerve action potentials (nerve impulses) that activate mus- cular contractions and glandular secretions. Epithelial tissue and most types of connective tissue, except car- tilage, bone, and blood, are more general in nature and have a wide

Junctions

Integumentary System Overview

Two major parts Cutaneous membrane ● -the skin ● -composed of epidermis and dermis Accessory Structures ● -Hair ● -Glands ● -Nails Function ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

-regulate body temperature -excretion and absorbtion Functions of the Integumentary System 1. Regulates body temperature. 2. Stores blood. 3. Protects body from external environment. 4. Detects cutaneous sensations. 5. Excretes and absorbs substances. 6. Synthesizes vitamin D.

Epidermis -

Avascular Many layers of cell(kerontoncyte and melancoyte Stratum basale - closet to basement membrane Stratum corneum- lines the free surface of skin Come Let's get a sun- burn (acronym to remember from top to bottom)

stratum lucidum (clear) is present only in the thick skin of areas such as the fingertips, palms, and soles. Stratum ganulosum: A distinctive feature of cells in this layer is the presence which assembles keratin intermediate filaments into keratin. Also present in the keratinocytes are membrane-enclosed lamellar granules which fuse with the plasma membrane and release a lipid-rich secretion. The cells are extremely thin, flat, plasma membrane–enclosed packages of keratin that no longer contain a nucleus or any internal organelles. They are the final product of the differentiation process of the keratinocytes.

Types of skin: ● -thin skin (hairy) covers all body except the palms, digits and soles ● 8-thick skin: hairless covers the psalm,palmar surfaces and soles Keratinization and growth of epidermis

process by which cells form in the stratum basale, rise to the surface, become keratinized, and slough off takes about four to six weeks in an average epidermis Newly cells at the top accumulate kertinization

Cells Found in epidermal Cell ● Keratinocytes

About 90% of epidermal cells are keratinocytes arranged in four or five layers and produce the protein keratin (KER-a-tin). keratin is a tough, fibrous pro- tein that helps protect the skin and underlying tissues from abrasions, heat, microbes, and chemicals. Keratinocytes also produce lamellar granules, which release a water-repellent sealant that decreases water entry and loss and inhibits the entry of foreign materials.

● Melanonocytes - contains melanocytes, which produce the pigment melanin; ● intraepidermal macrophages, participate in immune responses; and tactile epithelial cells, which function in the sensation of touch. ● stratum spinosum (spi-NO-sum; spinos- = thornlike). This stratum mainly consists of numerous keratinocytes

arranged in 8–10 layers ●

Dermis -

Two main layers Paipllary layer : aeorallar tissue, dermal ridges house capillaries, corpsucles of touch, free nerve ending

Reticukar Layer: irregular connective tissue , lots of collagen, elastic fibers

-fibers extend into papillary layer and to hypodermis to bind everything together

Stretch marks: occur when dermis is extensively distsurb and damage

Hypodermis -very elastic tissue: areolar tissue and adipose tissue -Subcutaneous: fat makes up 80% of all body fat -Liposuction: removal of subcutaneous fat Skin color Difference between the two forms of melanin, pheomelanin (yellow to red) and eumelanin (brown to black) is most apaprent in the hair Melanosome (where synthesis of melanin with uv light occur)

Hair -composed of dead, kerantized epidermal cells Sebacous gland is attached to the hair bob/shaft (produce moisture,)

Functions of hair -protection of scalp from UV radiation -Cushions light impacts to the head -Insulates the skull Arector Pili: the bundle of smooth muscle that pulls on the hair -Goosebumps Hair anatomy -hair shaft -hair follicle Hair Production -starts at the hair bulb -bulb surround the hair papilla -blood and nerve supply Hair matrix: epithelial cells that divide to produce the hair -daughter cells are pushed up -three layers of cell: -medulla,cortex and cuticle Hair growth sages

-growth stages -regression stage -resting stage Hair color determines by melanin production in melanocyte

Skin glands 4 types of glands Sebacious oil glands: connected to hair follicles -secrete sebum (sebum: moisturize,protect and coats hair) -Eccrine sweat glands are the most numerous (duct produce secretion to epidermis

Found in highest density in palm and soles, then on the head, -Apocrine sweat glands are located mainly in hairy skin areas (found near hair) Ceramous gland: found near ear b Perspiration -Two types of body fluid loss through the skin Insensible perspiration: fluid loss through the epidermis by evaporation -You are unaware of feel this water loss -water slowly penetrates keratinized lining and evaporations

Nails -made of kerantinized epidermal cells Nail body: visible portion of cell

Skeletal system 1) Support 2)Protection (brain,heart,etc.) 3)Assists body movements in conjunction with muscles 4)Mineral Homeostasis (storage and release) 5)Body cell production 6)Triglyceride storage Two subdivision -axial skeleton (80 bones ) cranial , trunk, etc(upper bosy bones) -Appendicular (126 bones) -bones skeleton

Types of bones shapes Long (graeter length than width) ex: humerus Short bones(cube shaped bones) etc: wrist, Flat bones: (thin layers of parallel plates)sternum Irregular (complex shapes) vertebrae Sesamoid (shaped like a sesame seed )) patella Bone structure Diaphysis-extended shaft -Walls are compact bone -inner space is medullary (marrow cavity) Epiphysis- expanded areas at the ends -mostly spongy bone -covering of combat bone

Bone structure (long bones) Articulkar cartilage surrounds bones Periosteum-outer covering of bone -functionc: isolates bone from surrounding tissues -route for circulatory and nervous supply to the bone Perforating fibers??

Medullarity cavity -within diaphysis Endosteum -inner covering of bone -active bone growth,repair and remodeling -lines canals -covers trabecukes

Bones Histology -Extracellular matrix -15% water, 30% collagen fibers, and 55% mineral salts Calcium Phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2) -Hard crystals but inflexible and brittle -good at resisting compression -React with calcium hydroxide to form hydroxyapatite crystal Collagen Fibers -strong and flexible -little resistance to compression

Bone contains 4 types of bones: Osteoprogenitor cells(bone stems able to differentiate into other types of cells) Osteoblasts(bone-building cells that secrete matrix) osteocytes(mature bone cells) osteoclasts(remodel bones and cause them to release calcium)

Compact Bone -good at providing protection and support

Spongy bone -lightweight -reduces weight of skeleton -provides tissue support

Osteon-basic functional unit -osteocytes in concentric layers(lamellae) around acentral canal Lamekla arranged in irregular patterns Compact bone: -thickest where stresses occur -limited number of directions -very strong along axis

1. List the five functions associated with muscular tissue? -transformation of chemical energy into mechanical energy -stabilized body position -regulate porhgan volume -generate heat -propel fluids

2. List the properties of muscular tissue. Skeletal tissue- moves bines of skeleton 3. What is the structure and organization of muscles and microanatomy? (refer to learning objectives describe microanatomy fascia, epimysium, perimysium, endomysium, etc)

4. What is a sarcomere and what are thick and thin filaments? (refer to learning objective identify and describe functions of muscle fiber, sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, t tubules, myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, sarcomere)

5. What role does tropomyosin and troponin play in muscular contractions?

6. Which muscular proteins are involved in regulatory function? Contractile function? Structural function?

1. Structural protein: Make sure you are familiar with titin

7. What is the A band, I band, H zone, and M line? 1. What is the sliding filament mechanism? 2. What happens to certain regions as the thin filament slide inward?)

8. The contraction cycle takes place in 4 steps, what are those 4 steps?

9. What is excitation-contraction coupling? 1. Describe the roles of the neuromuscular junction, action potential, acetylcholine.

10. What is the NMJ? What happens at the NMJ?

11. What does the duration of a contraction depend on?

12. What are three ways that provide ATP?

13. What are the functional and structural characteristics of cardiac, smooth muscle?

14. A motor unit consists of what? Why are they important? How do we recruit more units?

15. Describe how frequency of stimulation affects muscle tension?

16. Describe how muscle tone is produced.

17. Define and distinguish between isotonic and isometric contractions.

18. What is a muscle twitch, and what happens during each phase(latent, contraction, relaxation, refractory) of a twitch contraction?

19. What is wave summation, Unfused and Fused tetanus?

20. What are the different types of fibers? How do they differ?

21. Define hypertrophy? Atrophy?

22. How does aging affect muscular tissue?

Nervous Systtem CNS: Brain and Spinal Cord PNS: Cranial,spinal, enteric plexuses in small intestine, sensory receptors in skin CNS: Somatic Nervous system, autonomic nervous system, and enteric nervous system Functions of the nervous system: -sensory: sense changes through sensory receptors -Integrative: analyze incoming sensory info, store aspects and make decisi...