A&P II Exam 1 Review Endocrine and Cardiovascular PDF

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Endocrine System including hormones. And the Cardiovascular system including details, definition, and process. ...

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A&P II Exam 1 Study Guide (Endocrine and Cardio) Endocrine System: 

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Function maintain homeostasis throughout the body; collection of glands and organs that produce and regulate hormones in the bloodstream to control many functions of the body. Hormone regulatory chemical; to stimulate Neurohormone hormone secreted by neuron into the blood rather than the synaptic cleft Paracrine Regulation regulatory molecules work without being transmitted by the blood Endocrine Glands and Hormones -Polypeptides: short chains of amino acids (insulin and ADH) -Glycoproteins: longer than amino acids with carbs (FSH and LH) -Amines: amino acids (Epinephrine and Norepinephrine and Melatonin) -Steroids: lipids derived from cholesterol (sex steroids and corticosteroids (from adrenal cortex)) Lipophilic hormones that enter cell (ex. steroid hormones) Lipophobic hormones that do not enter the cell (ex. Epinephrine) 1. Epinephrine is lipophobic and needs to bind to specific receptor proteins on cell surface. 2. Acting through intermediary G proteins the hormone bound receptor activates the enzyme adenenylyl cyclase which converts ATP to cAMP 3. Cyclic AMP performs as a 2ndary messenger and activates protein kinase-A an enzyme that was previously inactive 4. Protein kinase–A phosphorylates and activates the enzyme phosphorylase which catalyses the hydrolysis of glycogen into glucose.

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Pituiatry -Posterior Pituitary Gland: stores and releases  Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): allows for fluid to stay in the body  Oxytocin: stimulates utrine contraction -Anterior Pituiatry Gland: produces the hormones it secretes  Growth Hormone (GH): stimulates muscles and bones to grow  Adrenocorticosteroid hormone (ACTH): regulates glucose homeostasis  Thyroid Stumilating Hormone (TSH): stimulates the production of thyroxin by the thyroid gland  Luteinizing Hormone (LH): ovulation and testosterone production in testes  Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): develops ovarian follicle and sperm in males  Prolactin (PRL): stimulates mammary glands to produce milk  Melanocyte stimulating Hormone (MSH): synthesis and dispersion of melanin pigment Thyroid Gland thyroxine helps set basal metabolic rate by stimulating the rate of cell respiration Parathyroid four small glands attached to the back of the thyroid -Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): regulate blood calcium levels Adrenal Gland located above each kidney -Adrenal Medulla: inner portion (cuboidal);  Epinephrine (EP) and Norepinephrine (NEP) -Adrenal Cortex: referred to as corticosteroids  Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone): increase renal reabsorption of sodium and water; raises BP  Glucocorticooids (cortisol): affects rate of glucose metabolism  Andogens: precursor of male and female sex hormones

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Pancreas islets of Langerhans (1-2% pancreas mass) -Beta (B) secrete insulin: lower blood glucose -Alpha (a) secrete glucagon: raises blood glucose Ovaries and Testes produce androgen Pineal Gland secretes melatonin which regulates biological clocks

Cardiovascular System:  

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Function to transport materials to and from cells: oxygen and carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones, immune system components, waste products. Functions of Blood  Stabilization of body temp  Heat loss via skin if hot  Heat retention to brain and other vital organs via shunting  Defense against toxins and pathogens  WBC- transported by blood to fight infection and remove debris  Restiction of fluid losses at injury sites  clotting  Regulation of pH, ions, and acids  Ions- either add or subtract by diffusion with interstitial fluid and blood  Absorbs and neutralize acid ( lactic acid from skeletal muscles)  Transport  Gases (O2 from lungs to tissues and CO2 from tissue to lungs)  Nutrients from digestive tract, storage, or liver  Hormones such as from endocrine glands to target cells  Waste products from cells to kidnes and CO2 to lungs Formed Elements all cells and solids  Red Blood Cells (RBC) or ERTHROCYTES: transport oxygen  White Blood Cells (WBC) or LEUKOCYTES: part of immune system  Platelets: cell fragments involved in clotting Hemopoiesis process of producing formed elements Plasma makes up 50-60% of blood volume; more than 90% of plasma is water Plasma Proteins  Albumins (60%): regulate osmotic pressure in plasma; transport fatty acids, thyroid hormones, steroid hormones  Globulins (35%): antibodies also called immunoglobulins; transport globulins  Fibrinogen (4%): making of fibers; molecules form clots; can become serum (plasma taken out) Serum fibrinogen removed RBC structure small and highly specialized disc, thin in middle and thicker at edge ( 7-8 um); from progenitor cells Hemoglobin (Hb) protein molecule, transports respiratory gases. Responsible for cells ability to transport O2 and CO2. Complex quaternary structure

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4 Globular protein subunits: each with 1 molecule of heme; each heme contains 1 iron ion Iron ions associate with oxygen (oxyhemoglobin) or dissociate from oxygen (deoxyhemoglobin)

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Anemia Hb or hematocrit levels are below normal

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RBC made in bone marrow; lose 10% to hemolysis; 90% sent through body; after 120 days, macrophage breaks apart RBC, heme releases the iron that goes back into blood. Transferrin takes iron back to form RBC. (PURPLE is decaying cells)

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Heme Biliverdin Bilirubin (yellow); Bilirubin goes into liver which either goes to kidney and out through urine or excreted through bile. (GREEN) Erythropoiesis RBC formation; only in red bone marrow (myeloid tissue); stem cells mature to become RBC Hemocytoblasts stem cells in bone marrow divide to produce:  Myeloid Stem Cells RBC or WBC  Lymphoid Stem Cells lymphocytes Agglutination agglutinogens: antigens on surface of RBCs; screened by immune system; plasma antibodies attack (agglutinate) foreign antigens Blood Types A (surface antigen A) (type B antibodies) B (surface antigen b) (type A antibodies) AB (antigens A and B) (neither A nor B) O (neither A nor B) (both A and B antibodies) Rh Factor either Rh (+) or Rh (-) WBC LEUKOCYTES; has nuclei, not carrying O2 or CO2  Defend against pathogens  Remove toxins and wastes  Attack abnormal cells  Movement:  In CT proper and lymphatic system organs Circulating WBC:  Migrate out of bloodstream  Have gliding movement  Attracted to chemical stimuli (postive Chemotaxis)  Some are Phagocytic ( neutrophil, eosinophils (microphages), and monocytes (macrophage)) Types of WBCs

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Neurophil polymorphonuclear leukocytes; 50-70% of WBC; very fast and first to attack bacteria, fungi, and some viruses. Engulf and digest pathogens. Release prostaglandins and leukotrienes (calls other cells)

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Eosinophil acidophils; 2-4% of WBC; sensitive to allergens; control inflammation Basophil less than 1% of WBC; release chemicals that attract basophils and eosinphils. Histamine (dilates blood vessles) and Heparin (prevents blood clotting). Both enhance inflammation.  Monocytes 2-8% of WBC; become aggressive macrophages; engulf large particles and pathogens; attract immune system cells  Lymphocytes 20-30% of WBC; part of the body’s specific defense system  T cells attack cell directly  B cells humoral immunity; never do direct attack  Natural Killer cells (NK) immune survelliance Leukopenia very low WBC count Leukocytosis very high WBC count Leukemia very very high WBC count

Myeloid Stem Cells produce all WBCs except from lymphocytes Platelets cell fragments involved in clotting  Release important clotting chemicals  Temporarily patch damaged vessel walls  Actively contract tissue after clot formation  Thrombocytopoiesis: platelet production

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Hemostasis bleeding 3 steps in Vascular Phase 1. Endothelial cells contract 2. Endothelial cells release: chemical factors, endothelins 3. Endothelial cell membranes become “sticky” to seal off blood flow Platelet Phase platelet attachment stick to surface and forms platelet plug which closes small breaks.  Activated Platelets Release Clotting Compound  Endothelial cells release prostacyclin that stop platelet aggregation  Circulating enzymes break down adenosine diphosphate (ADP)  Development of blood clot isolates the area Coagulation Phase converts fibrinogen into fibrin and fibrin network allows for clotting. Fibrinolysis thrombin and tissue plasminogen activator activate plasminogen.  Plasminogen produces plasmin: digets fibrin strands...