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INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE  To writers in newspapers and the popular press, the word culture means the arts (literature, paintings, music).  To the social scientist however culture is the specialized behavioural patterns, understandings, adaptations, and social systems that summarize a group of people’s learned way of life.  The visible and invisible evidences of culture:  Building patterns  Farming practices  Political organization  Ways of earning a living etc. http://efergy.com/blog/wpcontent/uploads/2012/11/218437553_fbb21e7e6a_o.jpg 2017-05-19 2  Cultural differences over time may present contrasts as vast as the difference between hunters and modern Americans.  Cultural differences in space results in human landscapes with variations as subtle as the varying “feel” of urban Paris, Moscow or Johannesburg or as obvious as the sharp contrast of rural Zimbabwe and the US Midwest.  Human geography first attempt to describe the pattern of cultural practices across the earth.  Then we want to address the question of why?  If humans represent a single species, then why do we have so many different cultures? Question:  Transmitted between generations through  Imitation  Instruction  Example  We learn the culture into which we are born and reared  Aspects learned dictated by  Age  Sex  Status  Occupation  With culture the is also a framework of roles and functions.  Subcultures can be distinguished from the broader cultural group by their owns specific cultural patterns.  Each individual learns and is expected to adhere to the conventions not only of the culture as a whole, but also those specific to a sub-culture.  Human Geography increasingly recognises pluralism of cultures within regions and tries to examine the separate content and influence of sub-cultures.

Culture is complexly interlinked web of behaviours and attitudes which may be misunderstood if we do not examine it holistically.  Distinctive eating utensils, the use of gestures, or ritual or religious ceremonies may reveal more to the causal observer but still needs to be considered “insignificant” parts of the whole.  Out of the richness and intricacy of human life we seek to isolate those special cultural variables that give structure and spatial order to societies.  Fundamental cultural variables:  Culture traits  Smallest distinctive units of cult 2017-05-19 4  The interrelations between people and their env, their perceptions and utilsations of it:  Cultural ecology: the study of the relationship between culture group and the natural env it occupies.  Environments as controls  Environmental determinism  Physical environment exclusively shape humans  Environment does, however, place relative constraints on societies  Possibilism  People are the dynamic force of cultural development  Human Impacts  Cultural landscape  Anasazi in Chaco Canyon, USA  Easter Island, Pacific  The more technologically advanced and complex the culture, the more apparent its environmental impact  Used to describe centres of innovation and invention from which key cultural traits and elements moved to exert an influence on surrounding regions  Several major hearths developed during the Neolithic period  Unique cultural traits  All were urban centres  Arrived at differently and differently expressed  Trade important in development of some hearths  Rigorous organization of agriculture

Exported technology, skills and learned behaviour beyond its borders  Cultural Convergence: The sharing of technology , organisational structure and even cultural traits and artifacts.  Cultural Divergence 2017-05-19 5 Structure of Culture Ideological Subsystem Mentifacts Consists of: ideas, beliefs, knowledge and how they are expressed in speech or other forms of communication Technological Subsystem Artifacts Composed of the material objects, together with the techniques for their use, by which people are able to live Sociological Subsystem Sociofacts Sum of those accepted patterns of interpersonal relations that find their outlet in economic, political, kinship and other associations Interlocking nature of all aspects of culture = Cultural Integration An artifact providing shelter for its occupants A sociofact reflecting the nature of the family or kinship group A mentifact reflecting the particular group’s convictions about design, building materials, and orientation of dwellings A mentifact reflecting the particular group’s convictions about design, building materials, and orientation of dwellings 2017-05-19 6  No culture is, or has been, characterised by a fixed set of material objects, organization systems or ideologies.  Could be subtle but also major and pervasive: Industrial Revolution,  Induced by:  Innovation: results from innovation/ideas created within the social group itself.  Diffusion: The process by which an idea or innovation is transmitted from one individual group to others across space.  Relocation Diffusion: Immigrants  Expansion Diffusion:  Contagious Diffusion  Hierarchical Diffusion  Acculturation  Innovation  Changes to a culture as a result of ideas created within the social group itself and adopted by the culture  Might be invented improvement in technology (Material)  Non-material (might be a new hairstyle/music)  Innovation itself not profound, but widespread adoption of inconsequential innovation = profound impact.  Hip-hop music

Acceptance vs. non-acceptance Cultural lag  Premodern & traditional societies typically not innovative  Tension  Adaptive changes required elsewhere in the system Innovation 2017-05-19 7  The process by which an idea is transmitted from one individual/group to another across space  Relocation Diffusion: Movement of people  Mentifacts and artifacts  Expansion Diffusion: Spread of information.  Contagious diffusion: Importance of Contact.  Time-distance decay Hierarchical diffusion  Space-time compression  Successful diffusion is also dependant on the characteristics and structure of the receiving culture  Diffusion barriers Diffusion When one culture group/individual adopts traits of a dominant or host society  Host society also undergoes change from absorption of arriving group  Cultural alteration through conquest  In extreme cases cultures can cease to exist after contact with another  One estimate is of the world’s inventory of human cultures have disappeared since 1500 AD  Transculturation  A more equal exchange of cultural attributes between two groups

PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE GGY 156 Introduction  What do you understand about development?  Always seen as positive  How can development be seen in a negative way?  Do you think we can continue on the current path of development? 2017-05-19 2 Introduction  “Refers to the extent that a country’s human and natural resources have been brought into full productive use”  Development differentials exist b 2017-05-19 3 Development Continuum Countries display different levels of development  First, Second, Third world countries  North and South  Developed and developing Continuum better reflects reality  Distinct graduation between countries at different levels rather than clusters in distinct groups  Developed, underdeveloped/less developed/developing  Moderately, less, least developed  Newly industrializing countries (NIC), Middle income countries, Emerging economy Economic Measures of Development  GDP – Gross Domestic Product  Total market value of all final goods and services produced annually within the borders of a country  GNI – Gross National Income  Adds to GDP the total foreign income earned by citizens  For comparative purposes we:  Convert each country’s currency to a common measure ($)  Divide by the number of people to get GNI per capita  Apply a PPP correction – to account for price differences  Doesn’t consider influence of informal economy 2017-05-19 4 Economic Measures of Development  PPP – Purchasing Power Parity  A method of measuring the relative purchasing power (value) of different countries’ currencies over the same type of goods and services.  Because goods and services may cost more in one country than in another, PPP allows us to make more accurate comparisons of standards of living across countries.  Allows one to estimate what the exchange rate between two currencies would have to be in order for the exchange to be at par with the purchasing power of the two countries' currencies. 2017-05-19 5 Explanations for Underdevelopment  Latitudinal explanation: climate  Resource poverty  Overpopulation  Landlocked countries  History - Former colonial status, slaves ALL INCONCLUSIVE !! THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 2017-05-19 6 Modernization Theory  All countries follow a similar path through economic development  Modern societies: advanced technology, high standard of living, democratic institutions, capitalist production.

Rostow’s stages of economic growth: Traditional societies – subsistence agriculture  Preconditions for takeoff – elite group initiates innovation  Takeoff – rapid growth  The drive to maturity – international trade  The age of mass consumption  The post-industrial stage Core-Periphery Model  Based on the observation that within many spatial systems sharp territorial contrasts exists in wealth, economic advancement and growth between economic heartlands and outlying subordinate zones  National and International level 2017-05-19 7 CORE PERIPHERY  part of a country with most economic activity and development  Dominant players in global economic game  Develop rapidly  Most prosperous  High industrialization  Positive characteristics of globalization  Area of low and declining economic activity  Poor regions  Dependent on the core  Low standard of living  Do not have much control over their own affairs Core-Periphery Model cont.  Circular and cumulative causation – industries expand leading to more innovation and growth  Regional income inequalities  Trickle down effects – spillover of wealth and knowledge  Spread effects 2017-05-19 8 Dependency Theory  Development is always spatially uneven, producing underdevelopment in other regions  Development of advanced core nations depended upon the underdevelopment of peripheral nations  Development creates underdevelopment  Drained of wealth, deprived of growth through exporting raw materials and importing manufactured goods  Aid and donors World Systems Theory  Describes the global economy as divided into core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral countries  Western Europe, Japan, US as prosperous cores  Core controls global economy

Growth comes at expense of exploited peripheral zones :Relative Characteristics of Development Less Developed Developed 1. Per capita incomes are low and capital is scarce - Per capita incomes are high, capital readily available 2. Wealth unevenly distributed within individual countries - Wealth within countries relatively evenly distributed 3. Primary industries dominate - Manufacturing and service industries dominate 4. Inadequate or unbalanced diet as well as hunger are common - Generally adequate supplies of food and balanced diets. Overeating sometimes a problem 5. Infectious, respiratory and parasitic diseases are common - Primary diseases related to age and lifestyle 6. Poor educational facilities and high levels of illiteracy - Highly developed educational facilities and low levels of illiteracy Patterns of Development and Change Other measures of development 2017-05-19 2 • Energy consumption per capita ▫ Common measure of technological advancement ▫ Industrialized countries use 10 times more energy than developing countries ▫ Polluting, cheap, fossil fuels ▫ Poor countries rely on human and animal labour •Percentage of workforce engaged in agriculture ▫ High developed economies have less people in agriculture sector ▫ Mechanization of agriculture to allow people to engage in urban industrial and service employment • Food security and nutrition ▫ Access to food ultimate indicator of economic well-being ▫ Provision of sufficient quantities of safe nutritious food ▫ In 2008 850 million people undernourished ▫ Undernourishment has crippling effect on development • Technology ▫ Technology gap between cores and peripheries ▫ Innovations: railroads, electrical engineering, computers, etc ▫ One objective of development is technology transfer • Safe drinking water and sanitation ▫ Safe drinking water and the sanitary disposal of human waste 2017-05-19 3 Variable 1960 2004 North South Diff. North South Diff.

Non-Economic Measures of Development • Education • Health • Aggregate Measures • Role of Women • Public Services 2017-05-19 4 Education • Literate educated labour force necessary for effective transfer of technology from developed to developing regions ▫ Teaching facilities ▫ Availability of teachers ฀ Rich countries same number of potential pupils have 20 – 25 times more teachers than poor countries ▫ Poverty – denies funds sufficient for teachers, classrooms, books, etc. Data Source: World Bank (most recent available year) 2017-05-19 5 Region % Arab World 47 % European Union 49 % North America 49 % Sub-Saharan Africa 45 % WORLD 48% Countries Chad 30 % Afghanistan 34 % Cape Verde 54 % Lesotho 58% SOUTH AFRICA 51% Data Source: World Bank (most recent available year) Health • Access to medical facilities and personnel ▫ Has profound implications for the health and well-being of populations ▫ In developing world too few trained professionals to serve needs of expanding populations e.g Tanzania 50,000pp per physician, whereas Cuba – 170 pp per physician, ▫ Congregate in urban areas ▫ Rural clinics few in number and great distances apart ▫ Brain drain 2017-05-19 6 Data Source: World Bank (most recent available year) Data Source: World Bank (most recent available year) Data Source: World Health Organization (2011) 2017-05-19 7 Aggregate Measures of Development and Well-Being • No single figure accurately represents different facets of development • Composite measures can be made ▫ Open to criticism • Development considered to be more than economic/physical • Value-free measures ▫ PQLI – Physical Quality of Life Index ▫ HDI – Human Development Index Veenhoven, R., World Database of Happiness, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands Assessed on (21/5/2013) at: http://worlddatabaseofhappiness.eur.nl 2017-05-19 8 PQLI (Physical Quality of Life Index) • Measures the quality of life or well-being of a country

Average of: Infant mortality, life expectancy at age one, basic literacy HDI (Human Development Index) • Used by the UNDP • Life expectancy, adult literacy, GNI per capita • Very high, high, medium, low. Source: UNDP, Human Development Report 2013 2017-05-19 9 MPI (Multi-dimensional Poverty Index) • Like development, poverty is multidimensional • International poverty measure • Identifies multiple deprivations at the individual level in health, education and standard of living • Includes ten poverty indicators, grouped into three dimensions. Source: UNDP, Human Development Report 2013 Role of Women • Statistics tend to treat all members of a society equally (e.g. GNI per capita) ▫ Does not take into account age/sex structure • Gender inequality hampers the full participation of women in economic and political life • Education and women empowerment leads to many positive development outcomes Source: UNDP, Human Development Report 2013 2017-05-19 10 Data Source: UNDP, Human Development Report 2013 FYI ONLY HDI Calculation 2017-05-19 11 Public services • The quality of public services and the creation of facilities to assure the health of the labour force are equally important evidences of national advancement. To sum up • These non-economic measures of development relate directly to human well-being and quality of life. • They are correlated with income because higher-income countries can afford to spend more on improvement of quality-of-life conditions Urban systems and Structure Cities as central places The Nature of Cities  Firstly, whether ancient or modern, all cities perform functions i.e an economic base in order to support itself.  Secondly, no city exists in a vacuum; each is part of a larger society and economy with which it has essential relationships.  Thirdly, each urban unit has more or less an orderly internal arrangement of land uses, social groups and economic functions.

The Nature of Cities  Because all functions and people cannot be located at a single point, cities need to organise  These spatial arrangement are either partially or fully planned by central authorities, individual decisions or market forces i.e actors in the urban landscape.  Finally, all cities have experienced problems in relation to land use, social conflict and environmental quality.  BUT, all cities though flawed remain the capstone of our cultures, the driving force in contemporary societies and economies and the magnet for people everywhere  Towns and cities have always occupied the same space, but the buildings and infrastructure which comprises the built environment …  Is continually in flux.  Changes occur on various scales: from residential relocation decision of individual households to large scale projects.  Net effect of all these socio-spatial processes is revealed in the land-use structure! 2017-05-19 3 Location  The urban centre is a consumer of food, a processor of materials and an accumulator and dispenser of goods and services.  The location of cities is therefore important to ensure efficiency.  Efficiency might be centrality to the area that is being served.  It might derive from its physical characteristics of its site  Or placement might be related to the resources, productive regions and transportation networks of the country so it can perform a wide array of activities. Location  Site vs. situation  Site= The exact terrain features associated with the location of the city (i.e absolute location).  Site (special placement circumstances)  Break-of-bulk (river crossing where cargoes or people must interrupt their journey)  Bay-head locations (limits of water transportation)  Rail-head (railroad ended)  Situation: relative location: kinds of possibilities and activities. 2017-05-19 4 Data Source: Environmental Potential Atlas (ENPAT) The Economic Base  Economic base theory  Economic well-being of city was proportional to the amount of goods sold to outside market.

Basic sector of the city’s economic structure.  Part of the employed sector involved in the production of goods to be sold to areas outside of the city = called workers engaged in “export activities”  According to the economic base theory, the basic sector makes up the economic base of the community i.e the “health of the community”.  Other workers who support themselves by producing goods and services for themselves and other residents in the city = Non-basic sector.  Total economic base of the city = basic + non-basic  Basic/non-basic ratio considerations  Multiplier effect 2017-05-19 5 Central Place  Central places are nodes for the distribution of goods and services to surrounding locations  Small cities = range of goods that suffice for most of everyday needs  BUT… specialized commodities only to be found in larger cities  Regularity of distribution emerges  Central Place Theory Theories of the urban system  Settlements that interact with and provide goods and services to an adjacent hinterland have been termed central places.  By definition the location of central places is connected to the general distribution of the population.  Evenly spread vs concentrated  Walter Christaller : central place theory 2017-05-19 6 Predict: Optimum pattern of spatial settlement will emerge? Theory applies to settlements mainly concerned with serving the needs of the surrounding communities. Population can not be the only measure Centrality : Degree to which a place serves it surrounding area, thus gauged in terms of goods and services offered. Threshold: min. population for normal profits Range: distance consumer is willing to travel to purchase product. Central Place Theory 2017-05-19 7 Hierarchies of central place  Result of consumer preferences is that a system of centers of variou...