BIO 111 final exam PDF

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BIO Exam Review Chapter 2 ● Atoms are stable when all of the valence electrons are filled ● Hydrogen has a partial positive charge while Nitrogen has a partial negative ● Water is a polar molecule that does hydrogen bonding ○ Hydrophilic--”water loving”; structures with polar bonds ○ Hydrophobic--”water fearing”; structures with nonpolar bonds ● Water has four emergent properties: ○ Expansion upon freezing ○ Moderation of temperature ○ Cohesion ○ Versatility as a solvent ● pH=-log[H+] ○ pH is low in acid (more H+ ions) ○ pH is high is base (more OH- ions) ● Each pH unit represents a 10x dierence in H+ concentrations ● Buer solutions maintain a relatively constant PH when either acids or bases are added to them ● Carbon is the element in all organic molecules ● Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula but dierent structures and properties (Example: enantiomers) ●

● A Major dierence between RNA and DNA is the type of sugar

● Saturated fats contain more hydrogen than unsaturated fats that consist of the same number of carbon atoms

● The components of amino acid structure varies among dierent amino acids

● Strong acid: H+ ● STRONG BASE= OH● Sodium potassium pump are active transport, is made up integral proteins, moves sodium and potassium against their concentrations. ● Integral proteins have amphipathic areas, polar and nonpolar regions. ● Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen ● Osmosis moves low to high. ● The cell membrane have distinct inside and outside faces because they face dierent environment and carry out dierent functions. The heads are hydrophilic and the tails are hydrophobic.

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Hydrogen water broke when water evaporates Elements that are full do not want to react with other elements M=mol/L Hydrophobic and small molecules passes the membrane MRNA has the U instead of T Alpha helices and beta pleated sheets are both define the secondary structure of a protein, an alpha helix forms a hydrogen bond between the carbonyl groups of amino acids that are 4 position apart and are found within the same polypeptide Aquaporins increases the rate of diusion of water across the cell membrane. Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms while ionic involve the transfer of electrons between charged atoms When it has a OH- at the end it will be liquid Dehydration assemble polymers and hydrolysis breaks polymers apart

● ● Proline and tyrosine have variable polarity. ● The proteins primary structure, the sequence is based upon the nucleotide sequence of the gene encoding the protein. ● Enantiomers are mirror image of each other. ● Maltose, sucrose and lactose are disaccharides ● Passive transport is osmosis, transport ions down its electrochemical gradient and facilitated diusion. ● A salamander relies on hydrocarbon bonding to stick to various surface, therefore the salamander would have the greatest diculty clinging to a surface of hydrocarbons

● The atomic mass of an element can vary, adding and losing neutrons will change the atomic mass without forming a dierent element ● Ice floats in liquid water bc have stable molecules of hydrogen bonds keep water molecules of ice farther apart than the water molecules of liquid water. and Negative G is exergonic ● ● ATP provides energy coupling between exo and endergonic ● The of the stroma increases and ATP is synthesized

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● The light reaction of photosynthesis supply the Calvin cycle with ATP and NADPH

● ● Competitive inhibitors compete with active side to fit

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● Metabolism consists of all energy transformation reactions in an organism. ● NADP+ is the final electron acceptor from Photosynthesis I ● Transport chain is located at the inner membrane of the mitochondria.

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An enzyme that catalyzes 2 dierent chemical reactions is because either the enzyme has 2 distinct active sites or the substrates involved in the reactions have similar structure The ATP acts as an intermediary to store energy for cellular work An organism must obtain all the necessary energy for life from its environment. Pumping of hydrogen ions from the mitochondrial matrix across the inner membrane and into the intermembrane space. Glucose- NADH-electron transport chain- o2 Feedback inhibitors is a regulatory mechanism in which the end product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an enzyme that catalyzes an early step in the patway. Most co2 is released during the citric acid In both glycolysis and the citric acid do substrate level phosphorylation In mitochondria, protons move from the intermembrane space into the matrix by chemiosmosis. In chloroplasts, chemiosmosis moves protons from the thylakoid space to the stroma. O2 is released by photosynthesis by splitting water molecules Transfer of energy from pigment molecules to pigment molecules is driven by light energy. When an electron is excited it accompanies absorption of energy by chlorophyll molecules of the reaction center complex. Energy released from movement of protons through ATP synthase down their electrochemical gradient is the most direct source of energy used to convert ADP+Pi ATP If oxalate is blocked, oxalate will accumulate in the citric acid will decrease There are approximate 34-36 ATP The free energy released as electrons are passed from photosynthesis II to photosynthesis I through a series of electron carriers it is used to establish and a proton gradient Net production of glycolysis is 2NADH 2PYRUVATES and 2 ATP Catabolic pathways are exergonic and provide energy that can be used to produce ATP from ADP and Pi Blue and and violent are visible in wavelength If an enzyme is added to a reaction that is in equilibrium nothing will change

● We can determine if an organism lack photosynthesis II if they produce oxygen or not in the light.

● Metaphase is characterized by alignment of chromosomes on the equator of the cell

● The trp repressor blocks transcription of the trp operator when the repressor binds to the tryptophan

● ● One dierence between cancer cells and normal cells is that they continue to divide even when they are tigligy together. ● The are frequently overexpressed in cancerous cells. ● Proteins are NOT the genetic material, DNA Is

● Enhancers are DNA sequences( distance between the promoter and the control elements are closer to the promoter), proximal controls are proteins

● DNA polymerase catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides in the NEW DNA polymers being formed during DNA replication. ● Transcription and translation occur simultaneously in prokaryotic. ● CENTRAL DOGMA= DNA->RNA->Protein ● Reduced or very little active telomerase activity is because cell age and begin to lose function. ● DNA replication, the resulting daughter molecules contain one strand of the original parental DNA and one new strand because DNA replication is semiconservative ● A+C=G+T ●

● ● Watson and Crick utilized the x ray image of DNA to establish that DNA is structured in a double helix ● P is the binding site in the ribosome where the polypeptide grows

● ● The mitotic spindle plays a critical role in the splitting of the cell, cytokinesis following mitosis. ● Erwin Charga A=T C=G ● The first event to take place in the translation in eukaryotic is the small subunit of the ribosome recognizes and attaches to the 5’cap of mRNA ● Alternative splicing of exons explains that humans contains about 20,000 genes but can make 75-100K dierent proteins

The nucleosome is the segment of DNA wrapped twice around a group of histones proteins ● eIF-2 is the molecule that is essential to the initiation of translation by binding to the small ribosomal subunit that eventually causing the large subunit to be recruited. ● Steps during transcription 1. The transcription factors recognize the promoter and binds 2. RNA polymerase is recruited and RNA synthesis is initiated on the template strand. 3. RNA polymerase moves down the gene and unwinds the DNA. 4. The polymerase reaches the termination sequence and the transcript is released 5. The preRAN undergoes modification Leading is continuous and lagging is discontinuous because okazaki fragments A cleavage furrow is a groove in the plasma membranes between daughter nuclei DNA methylation is an epigenetic modification that restricts access to genes. For a repressible operon to be transcribed, RNA polymerase must bind to the promoter and the repressor must be inactive The origin of replication is the dierence between structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic ●

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● RNA polymerase II is involved in the transcription of mRNA

Mitosis produces 2 identical daughter cells, while meiosis produces genetically diverse gametes, except it goes through 2 rounds of cell division meiosis 1 and 2 to get haploid gametes

Meiosis: 2 cell division Homologous chromosomes pairs to form tetrad

CH 13 Genes are the central idea of genetics ● Are localized in chromosomes and we visualize by karyotypes ● We can see it in METAPHASE in meiosis or mitosis

● Mendel did publish his paper but his discovery was not recognized. 4 dierent scientist rediscovery the ideas. ● Microscopy allowed to see the cells ● Chromosomal Theory!!!!!!! Walter and Theodor Boveri( did not work together) proved that the law of segregation was correct and used microscopy in grasshopper and sea urchins where the cells started and ended. ● T.H morgans defined sex linkage and lead to the first proof of chromosome was dicrect invlobe in the role of heredy!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ● He used bc they have 4 chromosomes 2 large and 2 small one and easier to work with humans because we have 23 ● He started by using the eye color, genes have specific place in specific chromosomes!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! That also proved Mendel ● Gene linkage refers genes that are linked together, close to one another. ● Genes are linked, this aect how often we ● The more space the higher recombination frequency!! ● Small space between chromosomes, the lower recombination, less likely crossing over!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ● Testcross to know the unknown ● The lower amount of recombination, the closer they are!!!!!!!!! ● Unlink sort independent ● The law of segregation will always apply ● The independence will not always apply only when they are close together. ● Recombination are 50%( highest) and 50%( at least) from parental ● Recombination frequency= (recombinant/ total osprings)*100!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ● Low number-> close ● The higher the number are parental!!! ● Females carries 2 X ● When we altered we see things like nondisjunction< when they dont separate and tend to g p tp the same pace.In some cases we have extra chromosomes or missing ● Cases such as Aneuploidy ● If a zygote is tri zygote and 1 is monozygotic ● Deltions, insertions…..!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ● Turner syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome

● Cancer caused by translocations of chromosomes chronic myelogenous leukemia) (CML) ● There are some exceptions, genomic interprinting; some genes will silence the fathers or the maternal ● Extranuclear genes are found in organelles in the cytoplasm, mitochondria and chloroplast REVIEW!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25 Questions on Old Material (10 similar to previous tests, 15 new questions) 35 Questions on New Material/Chapters 11 on Chapter 11 19 on Chapter 12 5 on Chapter 13 Study slides, examples, LC, PS Chapter 2 Conversions Ex: Grams-->50g/mol, 50mL, 50mM solution 50mM-->0.05M 50g/mol*0.05M=2.5 2.5*0.05L=0.125g or 125mL Water Carbon pH Ex: Fold change 6 to 8? 10*10=100 Chapter 3 Proteins Carbs Nucleic Acids Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis Chapter 5 Diusion (rates and ability) Membranes (components) Chapter 6 Enzymes Energy

Metabolism (what is it and how it functions) Chapter 7 Oxidative phosphorylation ETC Electron acceptor Glycolysis Citric citric acid cycle Inputs/outputs Location Mitochondria Chapter 8 Inputs and outputs Photosystems Calvin cycle Chapter 14 DNA replication Leading and lagging strands Directionality Components DNA packaging Levels Histones Structure and function of DNA Chapter 15 Transcription Translation Base pairing DNA-->RNA DNA-->DNA Chapter 16 Gene expression Why? How? Proto-oncogenes Tumor suppressor genes Chapter 10 Cell cycle

Mitosis Chapter 11 Genetic variation Meiosis 2n to 1n Stages/Steps Compared to mitosis Gametes Reproduction Sexual Asexual Chapter 12 Mendel True breeding Generations Laws Genes and alleles Crosses Punnett square Pedigrees Probability Addition and multiplication rules Dominance Inheritance patterns Chapter 13 Linkage Nondisjunction Recombination Frequency Linkage maps...