BIO 123 Exam 2 - Lecture notes 1-10 PDF

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lecture materials to help review for second exam...

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Study Guide for BIO 123- 2nd EXAM Chapters: 40, 41, 42 and 43 1. Know all the Epithelial tissue, Connective tissue, Muscle tissue and Nervous tissue 1. Epithelial 1. Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines the organs and cavities within the body 2. It contains cells that are closely joined 3. The shape of the epithelial cells may be cuboidal (like dice), columnar (like bricks on end), or squamous (like floor tiles) 4. The arrangement of epithelial cells may be simple (single cell layer), stratified (multiple tiers of cells), or pseudostratified (a single layer of cells of varying length) 1. Cuboidal 2. Simple Columnar 3. Simple Squamous 4. Pseudostratified 5. Basal Surface 6. Apical Surface 7. Stratified Squamous

1. Connective 1. Connective tissue mainly binds and supports other tissues 2. The matrix consists of fibers in a liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation 3. There are three types of connective tissue fiber, all made of protein: 1. Collagenous fibers provide strength and flexibility 2. Reticular fibers join connective tissue to adjacent tissues 3. Elastic fibers stretch and snap back to their original length 4. Connective tissue contains cells, including: 1. Fibroblasts, which secrete the protein of extracellular fibers 2. Macrophages, which are involved in the immune system 5. In the vertebrates, the fibers and foundation combine to form six major types of connective tissue: 1. Looks connective tissue binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place 2. Fibrous connective tissue is found in tendons, which attaches muscles to bones, and ligaments, which connect bones at joints 3. Bone is mineralized and forms the skeleton 4. Adipose tissue stores fat for insulation and fuel 5. Blood is composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood plasma 6. Cartilage is a strong and flexible support material 1. Loose connective tissue 2. Fibrous connective tissue

3. 4. 5. 6.

Bone Adipose tissue Cartilage Blood

1. Muscle 1. Muscle tissue is responsible for nearly all types of body movement 2. Muscle cells consist of filaments of the proteins actin and myosin, which together enable muscles to contract 3. Muscles tissues in the vertebrate body is divided into three types: 1. Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movement 2. Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary body activities 3. Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction of the heart

4. Skeletal muscle 5. Smooth muscle 6. Cardiac muscle

1. Nervous 1. Nervous tissue functions in the receipt, processing, and transmission of information 2. Nervous tissue contains: 1. neurons, or nerve cells, which transmit nerve impulses 2. Glial cells, or glia, which support cells

2. Know the term of Endothermy and Ectothermy ● Endothermic animals generate heat by metabolism; bird and mammals are endotherms ● Endotherms can maintain a stable body temperature even in the face of large fluctuations in environmental temperature ● Ectothermic animals gain heat from external sources; ectotherms include most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and nonavian reptiles ● Ectotherms tolerate greater variation in internal temperature ● Endothermy is more energetically expensive than ectothermy 3. Know the difference between skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle ● Skeletal: is responsible for voluntary movement (satiated muscle) ● Smooth: is responsible for involuntary body activities ● Cardiac: is responsible for contraction of the heart 4. Know the basic anatomy of your GI system including accessory organ in your GI 5. Know the function of adipose tissue ● Adipose tissue stores fat for insulation and fuel 6. What is homeostasis and how it is work in animals ● Homeostasis: to maintain a “steady-state” or internal balance regardless of external environment ● Homeostasis in animals relies largely on negative feedback, which helps to return a variable to a normal range

● Thermoregulation is the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a normal range 7. Know the term of evaporation, convection, conduction and radiation

8. Know where is the temperature-regulation center in animals ● Integumentary system: skin, hair, and nails 9. Know the difference between the artery and the vein in term of temperature control 10. Know your vitamins and mineral ● Vitamins are organic molecules required in the diet in very small amounts ● Thirteen vitamins are essential for humans ● Vitamins are grouped into two categories: fat soluble and water soluble

● Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients, usually required in small amounts ● Ingesting large amounts of some minerals can upset homeostatic balance

11. Know your chemical digestion in the human GI system ● Digestion is the process of breaking food down into molecules small enough to absorb ● Chemical digestion splits food into small molecules that can pass through membrances; these are used to build larger molecules ● In chemical digestion, the process of enzymatic hydrolysis splits bonds in molecules with the addition of water 12. Know the function of parietal cells, chief cells, bile salts and know the action of HCL ● Parietal Cells: secrete hydrogen and chloride ions separately into the lumen (cavity) of the stomach ● Chief Cells: secrete inactive pepsinogen, which is activated to pepsin when mixed with hydrochloric acid in the stomach ● Bile Salts: Facilitate digestion of fats and are a major component of bile (bile is made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder, bile destroys nonfunctional RBC) ● Hydrochloric Acid (HCL): Gastric juice is made of HCL and pepsin. Pepsinogen is activated to pepsin when mixed with HCL in the stomach 13. Know the enzymes from your salivary gland, pancreas, small intestine ● Salivary Gland: amylase, which breaks down starch ● Pancreas: proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin, which help to digest proteins ○ Pancreatic amylases: help digest sugars (carbohydrates/starch) ○ Pancreatic lipase: help digest fats

● Small Intestine: most enzymatic hydrolysis of macromolecules occurs here ○ Enzymes from pancreas -- amylase, trypsin and chymotrypsin, lipase, nuclease

14. Know the basic concept(s) of Type 1 Diabetes and Type 2 Diabetes. ● Types 1 Diabetes ○ Is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys the beta cells of the pancreas ○ It usually appears during childhood ○ Treatment consists of insulin injections, typically several times per day ● Type 2 Diabetes (non-insulin-dependent diabetes) ○ Is characterized by a failure of target cells to respond normally to insulin ○ Excess body weight and lack of exercise significantly increase the risk ○ It generally appears after age 40, but may develop earlier in younger people who are sedentary 15. Know your heart including basic Anatomy, basic term of Electrocardiogram, SA & AV nodes

● The human heart is about the size of a clenched fist and consists of mainly cardiac muscle ● The two atria have relatively tin walls and serve as collection chambers of blood returning to the heart ● The ventricles have thicker walls and contract much more forcefully ● Four valves prevent backflow in the heart

● The sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker, sets the rate and timing at which cardiac muscles cells contract ○ Regulated by two portions of the nervous system: the sympathetic and parasympathetic ○ The sympathetic division speeds up the pacemaker ○ The parasympathetic division slows down the pacemaker ● Impulses from the SA node travel to the atrioventricular (AV) nodes. Here the impulses are delayed and then travel to the Purkinje fibers that make the ventricles contract ● Impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle are recorded as an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)

16. Know the basic term of your RBC, WBC and Platelets ● Red Blood Cells: transports oxygen, removes carbon dioxide from your body by transporting it to the lungs for you to exhale ● White Blood Cells: protect the body against infectious disease and foreign invaders ● Platelets: fragments of cells that stop bleeding by clumping and clotting blood vessel injuries 17. Know the term of Hypertension, Surfactants ● Surfactants: coat the surface of the alveoli ● Hypertension: 18. Know the pathway of your Respiratory system 19. Know the term of inflammation, Septic shock ● Inflammatory response: such as pain and swelling, is brought about by molecules released upon injury or infection ○ Fever is a systemic (throughout the body) inflammatory response triggered by substances released by macrophages in response to certain pathogens ● Septic shock: is a life-threatening condition caused by an overwhelming inflammatory response

20. Know your B/T cells, Natural killer cells, cytotoxic T cell ● B cells: lymphocytes (WBC) that mature in bone marrow ○ Both used in adaptive immune response ○ B or T cells bind to antigens via antigen receptors specific to part of one molecule of that pathogen ○ Each B cell antigen receptor is a Y-shaped molecule with two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains ○ Binding of a B cell antigen receptor to an antigen is an early step in B cell activation -- gives rise to cells that secrete a form of the protein called an antibody or immunoglobulin

● T cells: lymphocytes that mature in the thymus (above the heart) ○ Each T cell receptor consists of two different polypeptide chains -- the tips of the chain form a variable (v) region, the rest is a constant (C) region ○ T cells bind to antigen fragments displayed or presented on a host cell ○ These antigen fragments are bound to cell-surface proteins called major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules

● Natural killer cells: circulate through the body and detect abnormal cells, they release chemicals leading to cell death, inhibiting the spread of virally infected of cancerous cells ● Cytotoxic T Cells: use toxic proteins to kill cells infected by viruses or other intracellular pathogens 21. Know what is Complement system 22. Know how B and T cell produce 23. Know the characteristic of the Adaptive and Innate immunity ● Adaptive immune system response is activated after the innate response and develops more slowly ● Innate immunity: a defense active immediately upon infection, includes barrier defenses ○ Found in all animals and plants ○ First response to infections and the foundation of adaptive immunity ○ *slides has more info, read over 24. Know the basic anatomy of the Lymph node in human 25. Know the pathway how lymph is drain in human body 26. Don’t forget to look at basic term of MI, Angina...