BIO 240 EXAM #1 Study Guide PDF

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BIO 240 EXAM #1 STUDY GUIDE/OBJECTIVES ● Anatomy- the study of structures and the relationships between structures; Physiology- functions of the body parts ○ The two cannot be wholly separated: structure usually determines function ● Levels of structural organization: ○ Chemical level- atoms/molecules essential for maintaining life ○ Cellular level- basic structural and functional units ○ Tissue level- groups of similar cell types (& extracellular matrix around them) that work together for a common function ○ Organ level- two or more different tissues; specific function and shape ○ System level- related organs with a common function ○ Organismic level- all body parts functioning together ● Characteristics of life: ○ Metabolism- sum of all chemical processes ■ metabolism= catabolism (breaking down processes)+ anabolism (building up processes) ○ Responsiveness- ability to detect and respond to changes within internal/external environments ■ Nervous system & endocrine systems detect changes and integrate and interpret those changes ■ Muscular system & glands respond to nervous/endocrine input to elicit changes to counteract changes in environment ○ Movement- motion (organismic level to cellular level) ○ Growth- increase in size and complexity ■ Increase in number of cells OR increase in amount of extracellular matrix ○ Differentiation: process from an unspecialized stage to a more specialized one ○ Reproduction- formation of new cells (mitosis) or production of a new individual (sexual) ● Anatomical position- standing facing observer with feet flat on floor, arms at sides, palms and eyes facing forward ● Directional terms: ○ Superior- up; inferior- down ○ Anterior (ventral)- front; posterior (dorsal)- back ○ Medial- closer to midline; lateral- further from midline ○ Proximal- closer to torso; distal- further from torso ■ Used when talking about limbs ○ Superficial- closer to skin; deep- further from skin ● Planes: ○ Sagittal- divides into right and left ■ Midsagittal- right down midline; parasagittal- not down midline

○ Frontal- divides into front and back (anterior/posterior) ○ Transverse- divides into top and bottom (superior/inferior) ○ Oblique- passes through body at an angle ● Body cavities: ○ Function: protect, separate, and support the organs ○ Dorsal cavity- cranial, vertebral cavities ■ Cranial- brain ■ Vertebral- spinal cord ○ Ventral cavity- thoracic, abdominopelvic cavities ■ Thoracic- heart, lungs ■ Abdominal cavity- stomach, intestines ■ Pelvic cavity- reproductive organs, lower part of intestines ● Diaphragm separates thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities ● Imaginary plane separates abdomen and pelvis ● Abdominopelvic quadrants/regions: ○ Right hypochondrium– Small intestine, right kidney, gallbladder, liver ○ Left hypochondrium– Pancreas, left kidney, colon, spleen ○ Epigastrium– Adrenal glands, spleen, pancreas, duodenum, liver, stomach ○ Right lumbar region– Right colon, liver, gallbladder ○ Left lumbar region– Left kidney, descending colon ○ Umbilical region– Duodenum, ileum, jejunum, umbilicus ○ Right iliac fossa– Cecum, appendix ○ Left iliac fossa– Sigmoid colon, descending colon ○ Hypogastrium– Female reproductive organs, sigmoid colon, urinary bladder ● Homeostasis: body’s internal environment remains within certain physiological limits ○ For a cell to remain in homeostasis it must have: optimum levels of gases, ions, nutrients, water; optimum temperature; optimum pressure ○ Nervous system works to maintain homeostasis by sending electrical messages to counteract stress ○ Endocrine system works to maintain homeostasis by sending chemical messengers, hormones, to maintain body within normal ranges

● Feedback systems ○ Condition: disrupts homeostasis; monitored by receptor ○ Receptor: responds to condition and sends input to control center; usually has some type of nervous connection ○ Control center: receives input and provides output to receptors; determines the point at which some aspect of the body (controlled condition) should be maintained ○ Effectors: receives output from control center; respond by bringing about change that counteracts disruption; usually muscles; counters/reinforces condition ○ Response: shuts down negative feedback; produced by effector ■ Negative feedback- response of the body reverses original stimulus ■ Positive feedback- response of the body enhances original stimulus ● Cells ○ All have plasma membrane, cytosol, organelles, and inclusions ○ Plasmalemma: cell membrane, separates internal and external environments ○ Cytoplasm: all cellular material between plasma membrane and nucleus of the cell ○ Cytosol: portion of cytoplasm called the intracellular fluid, suspends organelles, contains nutrients ○ Organelles: highly organized/specialized structures within the cell ○ Inclusions: temporary structures within cytoplasm that contain secretions and storage products (ex. vesicles) ● Cell membrane ○ Regulates passage into and out of the cell ○ Membrane lipids: ■ Phospholipids- 75%, hydrophilic head & hydrophobic tail ■ Glycolipids- 5%, cell adhesion ■ Cholesterol-20%, membrane strength, steroid hormone precursor ○ Membrane proteins: ■ Integral proteins- extend across membrane ■ Peripheral proteins- loosely attached to either the inner or outer surfaces of membrane ■ Channels (pores)- allows specific substances to pass, may have specific channel for ions, constantly open ■ Transporter (carrier)- transports specific substances by changing shape, opens and closes ■ Receptor- recognizes specific ligand and alters cell’s functions in some way, binds to chemical messengers ■ Enzyme- catalyzes reactions ■ Cytoskeleton anchor- anchors filaments and tubules for structural stability and shape, may participate in movement

■ Cell identity markers- distinguishes cells from anyone else’s ● Cellular inclusion vs extracellular material ● Tissues ○ Similar cells and their extracellular matrices ○ Share a common embryological origin ○ Function together as a group to carry out specific functions ○ Tissue types: ■ Epithelial- covers body surfaces; line hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts; form glands ■ Connective- protect and support body and organs; support, nutrient transfer, immunity, energy storage ■ Muscular- movement and generation of force ■ Nervous- coordinate body activities ○ Epithelial vs connective tissue ■ Epithelial: cells closely packed with little extracellular matrix, arranged into continuous sheets, have an apical surface (exposed to body cavity) and a basal surface (attached to basement membrane), basement membrane is a connective tissue matrix, avascular, innervated, high capacity for mitosis ■ Connective: greater proportion of extracellular matrix, usually vascular, usually innervated, derived from mesenchyme; basic elements- cells, ground substance, fibers; fibers- collagen, elastin, and reticular ● tissue

location

function

Simple squamous

Heart and blood vessel linings, lymphatic vessels, alveoli, glomerular capsule, serous membranes

Moving things quickly across membrane (diffusion, osmosis, filtration)

Simple cuboidal

Tubules and ducts, covers ovaries, pigmented part of retina

absorption/secretion

Simple columnar

Non ciliated: GI tract, ducts of some glands, gallbladder Ciliated: oviducts, uterus, central canal of spinal cord

Secretion and absorption, cilia used for movement

Simple columnar Stratified squamous

Can find wherever there is Absorption, secretion physical/chemical stress Keratinized (gives waterproofing)epidermis Nonkeratinized- mouth, tongue, pharynx,

esophagus, anal canal, vagina Stratified cuboidal

Rare Larger ducts of some glands, part of male urethra

Protection (usually against chemical abrasion)

Stratified columnar

Rare Anal canal, pharynx, larynx, male urethra

Secretion, absorption, protection

Transitional

Urinary bladder, portions of ureters and urethra

Allows for distention/stretching

Pseudostratified

Ciliated- Much of lower respiratory system (trachea to bronchial level) Non ciliated- some gland ducts, epididymis, part of male urethra

Secretion from goblet cells (mucous producing), movement of mucus by ciliary action

● Glands ○ Glandular epithelium forms the secretory portion of glands ○ Endocrine glands: ductless; secrete hormones into blood ○ Exocrine glands: exocrine glands secrete their products to the apical surfaces of cells or into ducts; more abundant ○ Functional classification: ■ Holocrine secretion: accumulate secretory product in their cytosol, die, and are discharged with their contents as the secretion; cell bursting; membrane rupture (ex. Sebaceous glands) ■ Merocrine secretion: secretory product stored in the cytoplasm in secretory vesicles and release it through exocytosis; does not damage cells (ex. Salivary glands) ■ Apocrine secretion: vesicles with product accumulate and pinches off from the rest of the cell; membrane budding; cell chunks break off and are still membrane bound (ex. Mammary glands) ● Connective tissue ● Tissue

Location

Function

Areolar (loose)

Papillary dermis of skin, hypodermis, mucous Strength, elasticity, support Easy for white blood cells membranes, blood vessels, nerves, around to travel through body organs (i.e. everywhere)

Adipose (loose)

Hypodermis; around heart, kidneys, eyes; yellow bone marrow; around joints

Insulation, energy storage, protection from injury,

shock absorbing Reticular (loose)

Stroma of liver, spleen, lymph nodes; red bone marrow; basement membranes

Framework of organs, binds together smooth muscle cells, like a sponge

Dense regular

Tendons, aponeuroses, most ligaments

Strong attachments Mainly fibers= strength

Dense irregular

Dense fascia, reticular dermis, perichondrium, periosteum, joint capsules, dura mater, membrane capsules Places that have forces from different directions- makes them not particularly strong

Strength, support, protection

Elastic (dense)

Lung, elastic arteries, trachea and bronchial tree, true vocal cords, vertebral ligaments, suspensory ligament of penis Found in places where recoil is important, rarely found by itself

Extensibility and elasticity, reduces friction, shock absorbing

Hyaline cartilage

Articular surfaces of bones; anterior ribs; nose; parts of larynx, trachea, and bronchial tree; embryonic skeleton

Resists compressive forces, smooth surface for articulation at synovial joints

Fibrocart ilage

Pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, menisci of shoulders and knees Found in most compressive forces in body, tough and flexible

Support, fusion, deepening of shoulder and knee joints, shock absorbing

Elastic cartilage

Epiglottis, external ear, auditory tubes

Allows structure to be semi-rigid and extensible; structure can return to resting shape

Bone Bone

Bones of skeleton

Support, protection, storage, movement, blood cell formation

Blood

Blood vessels and heart

Transport of gases, immune function, blood clotting Has transient fibers that allow it to clot

● Membranes ○ Epithelium + connective tissue

○ Mucous membranes: ■ Line body cavities that open directly to external environment ■ Mucosa + submucosa ■ Secretes mucous to protect epithelium by lubricating it and trapping harmful agents ○ Serous membranes: ■ Line body cavities that do not open to the exterior of the body and cover the external surfaces of the viscera ■ Parietal layer- attached to body wall; Visceral layer- attached to an organ ■ Serous fluid lubricates layers of serosa and allow organs to move freely within the cavity ■ Epithelial layer = mesothelium ○ Cutaneous membranes: ■ Epidermis + dermis ○ Synovial membranes: ■ Line joint cavities of synovial joints (joint capsules) ■ Do not contain an epithelial layer so they are not considered to be true membranes ■ Composed of areolar connective tissue with elastic fibers and varying amounts of adipose tissue. Synoviocytes produces synovial fluid ● Skin ○ Epidermis: outer, thinner, waterproof portion of the skin; keratinized stratified epithelium in strata ■ Protective functions: ■ Keratin- tough and resistant ■ Stratum corneum- waterproof, antimicrobial, abrasion resistant ■ Stratum granulosum- produces keratohyalin, releases lamellar bodies (responsible for waterproofing) ○ Dermis: deep to epidermis; composed of elastic and collagenous connective tissues, vascular; thicker on palms and soles ○ Hypodermis: deep to the dermis; not a true part of the skin; areolar and adipose tissues, serves to attach dermis to underlying tissues; protection, energy storage, insulation ○ Pigmentary vs keratinizing cells of epidermis ■ Keratinocytes (90%)- produces keratin which waterproofs and protects skin/underlying tissues, desmosomes hold cells together to form membrane

■ Melanocytes (8%)- produce melanin, cells produce melanin and transfer it to keratinocytes in stratum spinosum for distribution, once inside keratinocyte the melanin clusters over the apical side of the nucleus giving it UV protection ○ Glands: ■ Sebaceous glands: create sebum (oil) which forms a protective film, in combination with sweat, called the acid mantle. Antimicrobial. Holocrine gland. ■ Eccrine sweat glands: most common. Mainly water. Principal means of losing heat (takes heat from blood) via evaporation. Sudoriferous glands. ■ Apocrine sweat glands: found mainly in axillary region, pubic region, areolar region, and beard region (men). More viscous fluids released. Sudoriferous gland. ○ The skin’s role in thermoregulation ■ Large blood supply in homeotherms (maintain constant body temp.) in the form of arteriovenous plexuses that can deliver a large amount of blood to the dermis of that area. ● Arteriovenous plexuses constrict to keep you warm and dialate to keep you cool ■ Control of body temperature dependent on negative feedback system ● Condition- temp, Receptor- thermoreceptors in skin (create nerve impulses), Control center- hypothalamus, Effectors, Response ● Skeletal system ○ Functions: ■ Support- framework for body and points of attachment for muscles ■ Protection- protection of internal organs ■ Movement- skeletal muscles attach to bone. When muscles contract, they pull on bones to activate lever systems and movement is produced ■ Mineral homeostasis- bone stores minerals. Under control of the endocrine system, bone releases the minerals into the blood/stores it in bone matrix. ■ Blood cell production- red bone marrow produces blood cells through hematopoiesis ■ Energy storage- yellow bone marrow stores lipids ○ Structure of bone: ■ Diaphysis: shaft ■ Epiphysis: end of long bone, covered with articular cartilage ■ Metaphysis: where diaphysis meets the epiphysis, location of epiphyseal plate ■ Epiphyseal plate: grows and gives length to bones in growing bones. When bone growth exceeds cartilage growth, the plate is slowly lost. Growth of bones stops when cartilage is completely gone- adds length as it

ossifies ■ Articular cartilage: hyaline cartilage covering articular surfaces of epiphysis at a joint ■ Medullary cavity: space within bone containing red or yellow bone marrow. ■ Periosteum: surrounds bone, except where hyaline cartilage is present. Two layers. ● Fibrous periosteum: dense irregular connective tissue on the outer layer of the periosteum. Contains blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves ● Osteogenic periosteum: inner layer of periosteum containing elastic fibers and various bone cell types. ● Periosteal functions: bone growth, repair, nutrition. Point of attachment for muscles ■ Endosteum: single layer of osteoprogenitor cells lining medullary cavity (inside the bone) ○ Compact vs spongy bone ■ Spongy bone: lamellae of bone matrix arranges in an irregular latticework of thin plates of bone called trabeculae. Spaces between the trabeculae are a part of the medullary cavity of the bone. ■ Compact: very few spaces, layers of bone matrix tightly packed together forming osteons. Forms external layer of all bones, providing protection and support. ○ Histology ■

Osteoprogenitor cells: immature quiescent (i.e. inactive) lining bone surfaces. When stimulated, they enter mitosis, giving rise to a new cell type- the osteoblast ■ Osteoblast: once differentiated, they lose their mitotic ability and begin producing new bone matrix in a process known as osteogenesis. Build

bone by laying it down in circles and forming osteons. They can get trapped in mineral and become osteocytes ■ Osteocytes: mature blood cells embedded in matrix. ■ Osteoclasts: found scattered along endosteal surfaces. Function in bone resorption (osteolysis), the breaking down of old bone ○ Ossification ■ Cartilage → bone ■ Matrix of bone contains mineral salts. As these salts are deposited into the framework of ground substance and collagen fibers, they crystalize and the tissue hardens/ossifies. ○ Bone construction/destruction in homeostasis of bone remodeling ■ Bone remodeling: ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue. Balance between bone resorption by osteoclasts and bone formation by osteoblasts. ● Changes the way bone matrix resists stress ● Removes worn/injured bone ● Reservoir for calcium ○ Conditions necessary for normal bone growth/replacementµ...