BIO 102: Exam 1 Study Guide PDF

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Study guide for exam 1 of General Biology II. Study guide for Professor Pathapadu's class....

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BIO 102 Study Guide (Exam 1) Form and Function of organisms 1. Anatomy is the study of the biological form of an organism 2. Physiology is the study of the biological functions an organism performs 3. Most animals are composed of specialized cells organized into tissues that have different functions 4. Tissues make up organs, which together form organ systems 5. Some organs, such as the pancreas, belong to more than one organ system 6. Different tissues have different structures that are suited to their functions 7. Tissues are classified into four main categories: a) Epithelial b) Connective c) Muscle d) Nervous 8. Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body, lines the organs and cavities within the body. It contains cells that are closely joined. The shape of epithelial cells may be cuboidal (like dice)Ex. Kidney tubules, columnar Ex. Intestine (like bricks on end), or squamous Ex.Skin (like floor tiles) 9. Connective tissue mainly binds and supports other tissues. In vertebrates, there are six major types of connective tissue: a) Loose connective tissue binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place b) Cartilage is a strong and flexible support material found in ear and nose & at the ends of bones c) Fibrous connective tissue is found in tendons, which attach muscles to bones, and ligaments, which connect bones at joints d) Adipose tissue stores fat for insulation and fuel and found below skin e) Blood is composed of blood cells and cell fragments in fluid plasma f) Bone is mineralized and forms the skeleton 10. Muscle tissue consists of long cells called muscle fibers, which contract in response to nerve signals. It is divided in the vertebrate body into three types: a) Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movement b) Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary body activities in organs like digestive tract c) Cardiac muscle is responsible for contractions of the heart 11. Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal. Nervous tissue contains a) Neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve impulses b) Glial cells, or glia, that help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons 12. Control and coordination within a body depend on the endocrine system and the nervous system.

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a. The endocrine system transmits chemical signals called hormones to receptive cells throughout the body via blood. A hormone may affect one or more regions throughout the body. Hormones are relatively slow acting, but can have long-lasting effects b. The nervous system transmits information between specific locations. Nerve signal transmission is very fast. Nerve impulses can be received by neurons, muscle cells, endocrine cells, and exocrine cells. Organisms use homeostasis to maintain a “steady state” or internal balance regardless of external environment. In humans, body temperature, blood pH, and glucose concentration are each maintained at a constant level Thermoregulation is the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range. Thermoregulation is controlled by a region of the brain, hypothalamus a. Endothermic animals generate heat by metabolism; birds and mammals are endotherms b. Ectothermic animals gain heat from external sources and include most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and reptiles Basal Metabolic Rate is the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time. Metabolic rate can be determined by- An animal’s heat loss and The amount of oxygen consumed or carbon dioxide Torpor is a physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases. It is of different types like- Estivation (summer torpor) and Hibernation (winter torpor)

2. Animal Nutrition 1. Food is taken in, taken apart, and taken up in the process of animal nutrition 2. In general, animals fall into three categories: a) Herbivores eat mainly plants and algae Ex. Deer b) Carnivores eat other animals Ex. Tiger c) Omnivores regularly consume animals as well as plants or algae Ex. Man 3. Essential nutrients are required by cells and must be obtained from dietary sources. There are four classes of essential nutrients: a. Essential Amino Acids- Animals require 20 amino acids. Meat, eggs, and cheese provide all the essential amino acids and are thus “complete” proteins b. The essential fatty acids must be obtained from the diet and include certain unsaturated fatty acids (derived from plants like olive oil) c. Vitamins are organic molecules required in the diet in small amounts. Vitamins are grouped into two categories: fat-soluble (Vitamins- A,D,E,K ) and water-soluble (Vitamin B and C) d. Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients, usually required in small amounts. Ingesting large amounts of some minerals can upset homeostatic balance. Ex. Sodium, Chloride, Calcium, Phosphorus etc.

4. Food processing- It occurs in digestive system. Digestive system consists of alimentary canal and accessory glands. Mammalian accessory glands are salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gall bladder. Food processing includes four stages: Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Elimination a. Ingestion is act of eating. Animals can be suspension feeders (sift small food particles from the water-Baleen Whales), Substrate feeders (live in or on their food source -cater pillars), Fluid feeders (suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host-mosquitoes), Bulk feeders (eat relatively large pieces of food-python) b. Digestion is the process of breaking food down into molecules small enough to absorb. It is of two types. A) Mechanical digestion, includes chewing and increases the surface area of food. B) Chemical digestion splits food into small molecules that can pass through membranes;(Biomolecules are broken into monomers: Carbohydrates (starch) -> Glucose, Proteins -> Amino acids and Lipids -> Fatty acids and glycerol. These are used to build larger molecules. i. Food passes through alimentary canal from mouth into oral cavity (mechanical digestion), esophagus (peristaltic movements), stomach (acidic chyme), small intestine (duodenum, jejunum and ileum), large intestine (Cecum and colon), rectum (undigested food is stored) and eliminated through anus. ii. Salivary amylase, initiates breakdown of glucose polymers like starch. The tongue shapes food into a bolus. iii. The stomach stores food and secretes gastric juice, which converts a meal to acid chyme. Gastric juice is made up of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and pepsin (protein-digesting enzyme). Mucus protects the stomach lining from gastric juice iv. The small intestine is the longest section of the alimentary canal. It is the major organ of digestion and absorption. The first portion of the small intestine is the duodenum. Most digestion occurs in the duodenum. Other two parts, the jejunum and ileum function mainly in absorption of nutrients and water. v. Digestion in duodenum: Acid chyme (acidic food) from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and the small intestine itself. Pancreatic secretions are alkaline and neutralize the acidic chyme. Bile is made in liver and stored in gall bladder, it aids in emulsification of fats vi. The liver produces bile which helps in emulsification of fats, dead RBC are removed by bile, detoxification occurs in liver and it stores sugars in the form of glycogen c. Absorption in Small Intestine: The small intestine has a huge surface area, due to villi and microvilli that greatly increase the rate of nutrient absorption d. Absorption in the Large Intestine: The cecum is found at the junction of small and large intestine; it has an extension called appendix. The colon of the l arge recovers water that has entered the alimentary canal and it harbors bacteria to breakdown plant material. e. After absorption, nutrients (except lipids) enter blood stream and pass through the liver for detoxification. Lipids enter lymphatic system

Elimination- Feces, including undigested material, dead RBC and bacteria, become more solid as they move through the colon. Feces are stored in the rectum until they can be eliminated through the anus 5. Many herbivores have long alimentary canals with fermentation chambers, where mutualistic microorganisms digest cellulose. The most elaborate adaptations for an herbivorous diet have evolved in the animals called ruminants such as cow 6. Regulation of Energy Storage: The body stores energy-rich molecules that are not needed right away for metabolism. In humans, energy is stored first in the liver and muscle cells as glycogen. Excess fat is stored in adipose tissue 7. Pancreas produces hormones insulin (Decreases blood sugar) and glucagon (increases blood sugar) to maintain glucose homeostasis. f....