BIO 102 Exam 1 Study Guide PDF

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Comprehensive and extremely detailed study guide for chapters 1-4 of General Biology II. ...

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Chapter 1: The Animal Body Homeostasis: stable internal environment of the body Negative and positive feedback occur through feedback loops, adjusting body conditions. Two main types of body fluids Intracellular fluid: inside cells Extracellular fluid: outside cells Four main types of tissues Epithelial: covers and lines Connective: supports and binds Muscle: moves body Nervous: detects stimuli and relays signals Define Extracellular matrix: stuff in between cells Basement membrane: fibers secreted by epithelial tissue Characteristics of epithelial tissue - Cells frequently divide - Little ECM between cells - Tightly packed - 2 main surfaces 2 possible surfaces of epithelial tissue Basal surface: anchored to underlying connective tissue (BOTTOM LAYER) Apical surface: open to outside or hollow inside (TOP LAYER) 2 types of epithelial tissue Covering / Lining: - Simple = one layer - Stratified = multiple layers - Squamous = flat and square - Cuboidal = cube shaped - Columnar = taller than they are wide Simple squamous Stratified squamous Simple cuboidal and columnar Glandular: - Exocrine: secretions EXIT the body - Endocrine: secretions transport through bloodstream Characteristics of connective tissue -

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Lots of ECM between cells

2 main types of connective tissue Soft CT - Loose CT: underlies epithelial tissue - Dense / Fibrous, irregular: deep layers of skin, mess of fibers - Dense / Fibrous, regular: makes up tendons and ligaments, fibers are organized Specialized CT - Cartilage: rubbery material made of collagen fibers, shock absorber, bone prototype - Adipose: stores fat - Bone: cells surrounded by hard ECM, allow movement, support/protect internal organs - Blood: transports substances through the body Characteristics of muscle tissue - Made of muscle 3 main types of muscle tissue - Skeletal: voluntary, striations, multiple nuclei - Cardiac: involuntary, striated, single nucleus - Smooth: involuntary, no striations, single nucleus, makes up wall of most internal organs Characteristics of nervous tissue: - Found in brain, spinal cord, perioheral nerves 2 types of nervous tissue cells: - Neurons: sense changes and respond by transmitting electrical impulses - Neuroglia: assist neurons Neuron’s structure: - Cell body - Signal receiving end - Signal sending end 3 types of neurons: Sensory neurons: receive signals from outside or other organs and send to brain/spinal cord Interneurons: connect signals within brain/spinal cord Motor neurons: send signals from brain/spinal cord to other organs/cells Three regions of integumentary system Epidermis (skin) Dermis (skin) Hypodermis Functions of integumentary system - Detect external stimuli

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Barrier to keep pathogens out Controls temperature Conserves water Produces vitamin D

Epidermis Cells: stratified squamous (multiple layers, flat square cells) Keratinocyte: produces keratin Melanocyte: produces melanin Contents of dermis Blood vessels, lymph vessels, sensory neurons, sweat glands, sebaceous glands (oil), hair follicles Ectotherms vs. Endotherms Ectotherm (“cold-blooded”) - Maintain the same temperature as environment (fish, amphibians, reptiles) - Lack insulating features (fur) Endotherm (“warm-blooded”) - Temperature is unrelated to environment (humans, mammals, birds) - Have insulating features Too hot? Hyperthermia Blood vessels at skin widen and more heat is lost. Sweating & panting. Too cold? Hypothermia Blood vessels at skin constrict and less heat is lost. Hair/fur stands up & shivering. Define Hyperthermia: too hot Hypothermia: too cold Fever: body temperature high on purpose → kills pathogens Nonshivering heat production: special type of fat burns energy for heat Hibernation: dormancy in cold Estivation: dormancy in heat Chapter 2: Musculoskeletal System 3 types of skeletons found in invertebrates Hydrostatic skeletons: closed chamber filled with fluid Exoskeleton: hard parts on outside Endoskeleton: hard parts on inside Define Vertebrates: have backbone Vertebral column: backbone

Two divisions of vertebrate skeleton Axial skeleton: vertebral column, head, ribcage Appendicular skeleton (appendages): pectoral girdle (shoulder), pelvic girdle (hips), limbs or bony fins Components of ECM Osteoblasts: build bone’s ECM Osteoclasts: break down bone’s ECM Osteocytes: retired osteoblasts ECM is made of collagen fibers (proteins) and calcium and phosphorus salts Define Spongy bone: many open spaces Compact bone: few open spaces Osteon: circular mass of bone tissue with an open space in the center for blood vessels and nerves Red bone marrow: blood cell formation Yellow bone marrow: fat storage Process of bone formation 1. Starts out as cartilage 2. Converted to bone by osteoblasts 3. Continually being broken down and rebuilt Bones store calcium and are regulated by hormones Blood calcium too high → stored in bone Blood calcium too low → taken out of bone Osteoporosis: porous bones Reduce risk by getting enough Vitamin D and calcium in your diet Define Joint: where two bones connect Fibrous joint: dense CT (little/no movement) Cartilaginous joint: cartilage (little movement) Synovial joint: space in between with fluid (little/lots of movement) Ligament: connect bone to bone at joints Sprain: an overstretching or tear in the ligament Torn meniscus: when a chunk of cartilage is stuck in the wrong spot Dislocation: when your bones are out of place Arthritis: inflammation of joints

2 types of arthritis Osteoarthritis: inflammation of joints that occurs mostly in old age Rheumatoid arthritis: inflammation of joints that can occur at any age Define Muscle fiber: muscle cell that runs the length of the muscle Myofibril: Sarcomere: made of thick and thin filaments Thick filament: pull on thin filaments Thin filament: move toward eachother Myosin: Actin: what thin filaments are made of Smallest to largest thick / thin filaments → sarcomere → myofibril → muscle fiber (cell) → muscle Shortens sarcomere → shortens myofibril → shortens muscle fiber → shortens muscle Chemistry behind sliding filament model 1. Stimulation of muscle by nerve impulse initiates a contraction 2a. Calcium ions flood the muscle cell 2b. ATP binds to myosin proteins on thick filaments and breaks down to ADP + P 3. Myosin proteins can now attach to actin proteins on thin filaments 4. ADP + P leaves myosin proteins → myosin shifts position pulling on actin of thin filaments Chapter 3: Animal Nutrition and Digestion Digestive system is a tube or body cavity that mechanically or chemically breaks down food Gastrovascular cavities vs. alimentary cavities Gastrovascular cavities have a single opening where food and waste come through. It opens into a cavity where formation of waste occurs. Alimentary cavities have two openings and specialized regions for food breakdown, absorption, waste formation.

Five functions of an alimentary canal 1. Mechanical digestion and motility 2. Chemical digestion

3. Secretion 4. Absorption 5. Elimination Canines: pointy, sharp teeth for meat eating (carnivores and omnivores) Incisors: thin, sharp teeth for leaf cutting (omnivores and herbivores) Molars: thick, multi-pointed teeth for grinding (omnivores, herbivores, carnivores) Crop: storage for food to be digested later Gizzard: grinds up food using swallowed stones Define Gastrointestinal tract: stomach / intestinal tract Accessory structures: aid in digestion but not technically part of the tube (salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder) Cloaca: where waste exits frogs Human digestive tract mouth → throat → esophagus → stomach → small intestine → large intestine → rectum → anus

Characteristics of small intestine Inside lining is folded to increase surface area Villi, brush border cells, microvilli Chemically digests the four major organic macromolecules Pancreas and gallbladder secrete enzymes into small intestine Bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder Characteristics of large intestine unabsorbed / undigested material gets compacted into feces Feces in rectum cause stretching or defecation reflex Characteristics of liver Detoxifies certain chemicals Stores lipid-soluble vitamins and glucose Converts unused glucose to glycogen Coverts unused glycogen to gats Responds to hormones to release stored items into bloodstream

Define Amylase: enzyme in saliva Gastric fluid: mixes with food to make chyme Gastrin: promotes production of gastric fluid when food is present

Ghrelin: makes you feel hungry when stomach is empty Chyme: food after mechanical digestion in stomach Villi: line the folds in small intestine Brush border cells: line the villi Microvilli: extensions of brush border cells Lipase: pancreatic enzyme Bile: produced in liver, stored in gallbladder, aids in digestion Metabolism: chemical reactions of the body Essential amino acid: body needs them, but can’t make them Vitamin: organic molecules Mineral: inorganic molecules Process of absorption in small intestine Good carbs like whole grains, fruits, and vegetables also contain other stuff that's good for you. Bad carbs like white flour, refined sugar, and corn syrup contain none of the good stuff for you Good fats are essential fatty acids that the body needs but cannot make on its own. There are also good fats in nuts, vegetable oil, fish, and meat. Bad fats are saturated fats found in meat and full-fat dairy products. A complete protein source has all the essential amino acids An incomplete protein source only has some of the essential amino acids Lipid-soluble vitamins are not excreted in urine so the build-up can be bad Water-soluble vitamins can be excreted in urine if there is extra and excess is not bad Risks of obesity: increased risk of health problems Anorexia nervosa: causes damage to all organ systems Bulimia nervosa (purge): damage to GI tract from acid and fluid balance Bulimia nervosa (non-purging): muscle damage from excessive exercise and cardiovascular damage Chapter 4: Osmotic Regulation and Excretion Invertebrates Marine (jellyfish): body fluids are same concentration as seawater so osmosis moves water in and out without any change Freshwater (Flatworm): body fluids higher concentration than surrounding water osmosis moves water in Land (bug): drink water - no osmosis Vertebrates -

Marine (fish): body fluids less salty than water so osmosis moves water out of body Freshwater (fish): body fluids more salty so osmosis moves water in Land (human): waterproof skin - no osmosis Four major structures of human urinary system - Kidneys - Ureters - Urinary bladder - Urethra Structure of kidney? Nephrons: tubes in contact with blood vessels Blood passes by, waste leaves blood, enter nephron, travel through nephron to ureter Process of blood filtration to urine formation to urine excretion from the glomerulus to the urethra Four main steps of urine formation 1. Glomerular filtration 2. Tubular reabsorption 3. Tubular secretion 4. Urine concentration Locate regions of nephron on diagram! Predict changes to blood chemistry using bicarbonate buffer system. How kidneys maintain blood pH Increase bicarbonate reabsorption if pH is too low Increase tubular secretion of H+ if pH is too low Kidney failure Blood vessel damage limits filtration and reabsorption ability High-protein diets make kidneys work overtime Kidney dialysis Machine outside body that acts like a kidney...