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BIOPSYCH LESSON 1Definition of TermsNeuroscience– Scientific study of the Nervous SystemBiopsychology– Scientific study of the Biology of BehaviorPsychology– scientific study of behavior—the scientific study of all overt activities of the organism as well as all the internal processes that are presu...

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BIOPSYCH LESSON 1 Definition of Terms Neuroscience– Scientific study of the Nervous System Biopsychology– Scientific study of the Biology of Behavior Psychology– scientific study of behavior—the scientific study of all overt activities of the organism as well as all the internal processes that are presumed to underlie them. Neuroanatomy– Study of the Structure of the Nervous System Neurochemistry– Study of the Chemical Basis of Neural Activity Neuroendocrinology– The Study of the interaction between the nervous System and the Endocrine System Neuropathology– Study of Nervous System Disorders Neurophysiology– The study of the Functions and Activities of the Nervous System Physiological Psychology – Neural Mechanisms of Behavior through direct manipulation of the brain in controlled experiments. Psychopharmacology – Manipulation of neural activity with drugs. Neuropharmacology – The study of the effects of drugs on neural activity. Neuropsychology – Study of psychological effects of brain damage in Human Patients Psychophysiology – Physiological activity and psychological processes in human subjects Comparative Psychology Cognitive Neuroscience – Study of the Neural basis of Cognition (higher intellectual functions) BIOPSYCH LESSON 2 How do we do Research? We either use animals (white lab rats) or specimens of post brain trauma (traumatic brain injuries). When we use white lab rats, usually we cause damage to parts of the brain and observe the effects.

When using specimens of post brain trauma, we usually observe how he behaves and derive conclusions. Nature–Nurture Issue Do we Inherit or do we learn? Physiological–or–Psychological Debate Two Cases Prove that the previous is nonsense 

Man who fell out of his bed (Sacks, 1985)

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Chimps with Mirrors (Gallup, 1983; Parker, Mitchell, & Boccia, 1994)

*** Brain Damage (physiological) can create changes in perception; species viewed as less intelligent than us posses the ability for higher cognitive functions (can be like us) *** Do you believe in Evolution? Religious Opinion on Evolution Catholicism: It happened under the guidance of God. Islam: Surat al–Anbiya – “We made out of water every living being” Kitab al–Hayawan – Natural Selection Ahmadiyya – Divinely Driven Buddhism – DUH Biology of Behavior Model

BIOPSYCH LESSON 3 Anatomy of the Nervous System Two General Divisions of the NS Central Nervous System – Composed of all parts of the nervous system located within the skull and spinal cord. Peripheral Nervous System – Composed of all parts of the nervous system located outside the skull and spinal cord. The PNS is made up of two divisions: Somatic Nervous System – Interacts with the external environment (SAME)

Cerebral Aqueduct / Aqueduct of Sylvius – Connects Third Ventricle and Diencephelon and the Fourth Ventricle. Subarachnoid Space, Central Canal, and Cerebral Ventricles are interconnected and thus form a reservoir Choroid Plexus – network of capillaries that produce the CSF. Protrudes from pia matter Excess CSF – dural sinuses which run throughout the dura matter and drain into the jugular veins of the neck. Hydrocephalus is treated by draining the excess fluid from the ventricles and trying to remove the obstruction.

Autonomic Nervous System – Regulates the body’s internal system. Sensory signals > CNS then CNS > Motor signals to the organs. Sympathetic Nerves – Autonomic Nerves that project from the lumbar and thoracic levels of the spinal cord. They stimulate, organize, and mobilize energy in threatening situations. Psychological Arousal. Parasympathetic Nerves – Poject from the brain and the sacral region. They act to conserve energy. Relaxation. Both are TWO STAGE (They only go a certain distance before connecting to other nerves that go directly to their target organ. Each organ receives two sets of these nerves in opposing fashion. Anatomical Terms 

Cephalic and Caudal (Head vs Tail)

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Dorsal and Ventral (Back vs Belly)

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Lateral and Medial (Side vs Middle)

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Anterior and Posterior (Before vs After)

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Coronal, Saggital, and Transverse planes

Blood Circulation in the Brain Circle of Willis – Named after Thomas Willis, is a circle like structure that supplies blood the brain and the surrounding areas.

Meninges, Ventricles and CSF Meninges – Three Protective Membranes inside the skull Dura Matter (Hard Mother), Arachnoid and Sub Arachnoid Membrane, Pia Matter (Pious Mother) Cerebriospinal Fluid – Fills Sub Arachnoid Space and Central Canal of Spinal Cord. Cerebral Ventricles – Where CSF flows

Located near the Interpeduncular Fossa at the base of the Brain.

Oligodendrocytes – Cells with extensions that wrap around axons thus myelinating them. Schwann Cells – Same as above but found in the peripheral nervous system YET only Schwann cells guide axonal regeneration. Microglia – Respond to injury by multiplying and then engulfing cellular debris which then triggers an inflammatory response

Creates redundancy for collateral circulation in the cerebral circulation. If one part of the circle becomes blocked or narrowed (stenosed), or one of the arteries supplying the circle is blocked or narrowed, blood flow from other vessels can often preserve the cerebral perfusion well enough to avoid the symptoms of ischemia (loss of blood or oxygen thus resulting in death of tissue) Triangle of death

Astrocytes – Largest cells and plays a role in the passage of some chemicals from blood into the CNS, Structures neurons, send and receive signals from neurons and other glial cells to control the establishment and maintenance of synapses between neurons, modulate neural activity, maintain function of axons, and participate in glial circuits. Grey vs White Matter Grey – Unmyelinated White – Myelinated Myelin – the fatty insulation around many axons. Anatomy of the Spinal Cord Dorsal Arms are called Dorsal Horns and Ventral arms are called Ventral Horns Pairs of Spinal Nerves are attached to the Spinal Cord (31)

Blood–Brain Barrier – Barrier consisting of cerebral blood vessels which inhibit the passage of harmful substances from entering the brain. Cells of the Nervous System Neurons – specialized cells for reception, conduction, and transmission of electrochemical signals Classes of Neurons – Multipolar, Unipolar, and Bipolar, and Interneurons. *** Most neurons and Multipolar *** Glial Cells – Surround neurons and provide support and insulation.

Types:

DORSAL ROOT AXONS – SENSORY (DORSAL ROOT GANGLIA) VENTRAL ROOT AXOS – MOTOR (VENTRAL ROOT GANGLIA) Cranial Nerve

Lobes of the Brain Bundle of fibers (Pyramid Tracts) that decussate and continue down the spinal cord on the contralateral side Pyramidal Tracts: Corticospinal Tract: Movement of Muscles of the body Corticobulbar Tract: Facial Expression, Movement of the head, swallowing, phonation, and movements of the tongue. BIOPSYCH LESSON 4 Major Structures of the Brain

Olivary Bodies Termed as Medullary Olives or simply Olives Pair of prominent oval structures that contain the olivary nuclei.

Definition of Terms: Nucleus – cluster of neurons in the central nervous system (plural is nuclei) Tracts – bundle of nerve fibers (axons) Peduncle – Stem–like connector Gyrus – Kulot kulot (Plural is Gyri) Myelencephalon Sometimes called the Medulla or Medulla Oblangata Basic Life Support Situated between the Pons and the Brainstem Composed largely of tracts carrying signals between the rest of the brain and the body Contains the Reticular Formation (plays a role in arousal, attention, movement, maintenance of muscle tone, various cardiac, respiratory, and circulatory reflexes. Division of the Reticular Formation Parvocellular Reticular Nuclei (Lateral Zone) – Regulate exhalation Gigantocellular reticular Nuclei (Medial Zone) – Motor Coordination Raphe Nuclei (Median) – Where Serotonin (5–HT) is synthesized; Mood regulation Somatic Motor Control (tone, balance, and posture – during body movements), Also relays eye and ear signals to the cerebellum so that the cerebellum can integrate visual, auditory and motor coordination Medullary Pyramids

Two parts: Inferior Olivary Nucleus (part of the olivo– cerebellar system and is mainly involved in cerebellar motor–learning and function) and Superior Olivary Nucleus (considered part of the pons and part of the auditory system, aiding in the perception of sound) Metencephalon Houses many ascending and descending tracts and parts of the reticular formation Pons – Regulation of Breathing (pneumotaxic center) and involved in the transmission of to and from other areas of the brain (cerebrum to the cerebellum) Cerebellum – coordinate muscle movements, posture, and integrate sensory formation from the inner ear and proprioception (sense of one’s position and strength of effort) in the muscles and joints ***Both the Myelencephalon and the Metencephalon form the Hindbrain. Mesencephalon Two divisions: Tectum and Tegmentum Tectum: Auditory and Visual Reflexes; Two bumps Superior (Visual) and Inferior Colliculus (Auditory)

Tegmentum – Three colorful structures

Periaqueductal Gray – Gray matter situated around the cerebral aqueduct; Mediates the analgesic effect of opiate drugs Substantia Nigra – Eye–movement, motor planning, reward–seeking, learning, and addiction (mediated by the striatum) Red Nucleus – Vestigial in primate brains, – Motor Coordination (crawling in babies and arm swinging in walking) Diencephalon Thalamus + Hypothalamus Thalamus – large, two–lobed structure that constitutes the top of the brain stem. Both sit on each side of the Third Ventricle. Sensory “way–station” Massa intermedia – Joins both lobes. On the surface, we can see the Lamina

Fissures – large furrows Sulci – small furrows ; Gyri – ridges between fissures and sulci. Longitudinal fissure – Divides both hemispheres. Inside, Cerebral commissures – connect both hemispheres; longest fissure. Corpus collosum – The largest commissure. Four Lobes: Frontal Lobe, Parietal Lobe, Temporal Lobes, and the Occipital Lobe. Largest gyri – Precentral gyri, postcentral gyri, and the superior temporal gyri. Occipital Lobe – Analysis of visual input Postcentral gyrus – analyze sensations of the body Parietal Lobe – perceiving location of both objects and our bodies in directing behavior.

Composed of many different pairs of nuclei which project to the cortex

Superior Temporal Gyrus – Hearing and Language

Most understood Thalamic nuclei:

Inferior Temporal Gyrus – Complex Visual Patterns

Sensory relay nuclei – nuclei that receive signals from sensory receptors, process them, and then transmit them to appropriate areas of sensory cortex. (ex. lateral geniculate nuclei, medial geniculate nuclei, and the ventral posterior nuclei – relay stations in the visual, auditory, and somatosensory systems.)

Precentral Gyrus – Motor Function

Hypothalamus – Below the anterior thalamus. Regulated behavior – Sleeping, eating, and sexual behavior. Regulates hormones released by the pituitary gland. Optic Chiasm – Where the nerves from the eyes decussate Mamilliary bodies – Spherical nuclei which has a role in recollective memory.

Frontal Cortex – complex cognitive functions Postcentral gyrus – analyze sensations of the body Inferior Frontal Gyrus – Speech production Anterior Paracentral Lobule – Continuation of the precentral gyrus and concerned with somatosensation of distal limbs Posterior paracentral lobule precuneus –Innervation of the contralateral lower extremities and control of defecation and urination. Gyrus Rectus/Orbital Gyri – Function is unclear and is viewed as primitive development but is linked with personality and hypersexuality with men.

Telencephalon

Superior Parietal Lobule – Somatosensory Activity

Largest division of the Human Brain and mediates the brains most complex functions. Initiates voluntary movements, interprets sensory input, and mediates complex cognitive processes such as learning, speaking, and problem solving.

Inferior Parietal Lobule – Divided into Two Parts:

Cerebral Cortex – Layer of tissue that covers the cerebral hemispheres. Deeply convoluted.

Supramarginal Gyrus – Integration of sensory information Angular Gyrus – Receives visual information Superior Temporal Gyrus – Auditory processing, and social cognition

Broca’s Area – Speech Production Wernicke’s Area – Language Comprehension Middle Temporal Gyrus – Language processes Inferior Temporal Gyrus – Visual Perception Transverse Temporal Gyri of Heschl – Auditory Cortex Fusiform Gyrus – Object and Facial recognition

Septum Pellucidum – Anatomical Barrier yet real function remains unclear Basal Ganglia Amygdala – Caudate Putamen (STRIATUM) – Globus Pallidus Plays a role in the performance of voluntary motor responses.

Lingual Gyrus – Recognition of words

Putamen – Planning, learning and execution, motor preparation, specifying of amplitudes of movement, and movement sequences. Reinforcement Learning, implicit learning, category learning, “Hate Circuit (with insula). Recent studies have shown that for transwomen, larger amounts of gray matter have been found BUT this does not imply much.

Long and Short Gyrus of the Insula – Sensation of Taste and Olfaction

Globus Pallidus – Regulates movement at the subconscious level.

Cingulate Gyrus – Emotion and Behavioral Regulation

Pallidotomy – damage is caused in order to reduce involuntary muscle tremors.

Fusiform Facial Area – Recognition of Facial Expression. Superior and Inferior Occipital Gyri – Interpretation of visual stimuli Cuneate Gyrus – Letters and analysis of logical events

Parahippocampal Gyrus – Memory Encoding and Retrieval Dentate Gyrus – New episodic memory, spontaneous exploration of novel environments

BIOPSYCH LESSON 5 Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission Definition of Terms:

Neocortex (new cortex) – Six layers of recent evolution. Two types of cells: Pyramidal and Stellate which abound from cortices I to VI.

Membrane – separates the interior of the cell from the outside of it. Ion – atom or molecule with a net electrical charge.

Hippocampus – Memory specifically for spatial locations.

Terminal Buttons – small knobs at the end of an axon that release neurotransmitters

Limbic System and the Basal Ganglia Nerve Impulse – Neuron receives chemical stimulus Circuit of midline structures that circle the thalamus. Resting Membrane Potential Four F’s of behavior: Fight, Flight, Feeding, and Sexual Intercourse

70mV. This means that inside the neuron, it is 70mV less than that outside the neuron. (Polarized)

Limbic System Amygdala – Cingulate Cortex – Fornix – Septum Pellucidum

Negative ions inside the cell are greater than that outside the cell. Ion channels – specialized pores wherein ions cans pass.

Amygdala – Emotional Memory and fear Cingulate Cortex – Linking motivational outcomes to behavior. Important for Schiz and Depression Fornix – Function is not entirely sure but correlates well with Recall Memory

Random Motion – ions in neural tissue are in constant motion and they tend to become evenly distributed because they are more likely to move DOWN their concentration gradient than up. (More likely to move from high to low)

Electrostatic pressure – Any accumulation of ions tends to be dispersed by the repulsion of like charges in the vicinity and their attraction of opposite charges concentrated elsewhere. Sodium–potassium pumps – mechanisms in the cellular membrane that actively transport ions or molecules across the membranes. Four Kinds of Ions Sodium (Na+) – more concentrated outside. Potassium (K+) – more concentrated inside. Chloride (Cl–) – more concentrated outside. And variously negatively charged ions – synthesized INSIDE and stay there. Generation and Conduction of Postsynaptic Potentials When neurons fire, they may: 1. Depolarize – decrease the resting membrane potential 2. Hyperpolarize – Increase the resting membrane potential Excitatory Postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) increase the likelihood to fire. Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (IPSPs) decrease the likelihood to fire.

Absolute refractory period – 1 or 2 milliseconds after the initiation of an action potential during which it is impossible to elicit a second one. Relative refractory period – possible that neurons may fire again BUT only applying higher than normal levels of stimulation Importance of the Nodes of Ranvier Saltatory conduction – Electric signals jump from one node to the other which then forms a rapid signal. In unmyelinated axons, since the electric signals travel a long time before it can even go there it dies already. Chemical Transmission of Signals among neurons Directed Synapses – Synapses at which the site of neurotransmitters release and reception is at close proximity Non–Directed Synapses – Site of release is quite some distance from the site of reception. Neurotransmitters are released by a series of varicosities (bulges or swelling) along the axon and thus are widely dispersed in their surroundings Two types of molecules: Small and Large Large neurotransmitters are all neuropeptides (short amino acids)

Action Potentials

Small neurotransmitters are of varied types and are typically synthesized in the cytoplasm (body) of the terminal button and packed in synaptic vesicles by the button’s golgi complex.

A single AP only does little to the potsynaptic neuron because it only affects ions around it. More Aps are needed to really excite a neuron.

Once packed, they are stored in the presynaptic membrane awaiting to be transferred if the neuron is activated.

Threshold of excitation = – 65mV (action potential is generated)

Coexistence can be observed between neuropeptides and small vesicles.

Action potential – depolarized almost instant and are not graded. (All–or–none)

Release of Neurotransmitter Molecules

Voltage–activated ion channels – ion channels that open or close in response to changes in the level of membrane potential.

When neuron is at rest – small–molecule neurotransmitters congregate near voltage–activated calcium channels – Ca2+ ions enter – vesicles fuse and are then emptied into cleft.

Both are graded responses.

Refractory Periods

Exocytosis – Process of release

Small–Molecules = Released in a pulse each time an action potential triggers Ca2+

Neuropeptides = gradual in response to general increase in the level of intracellular Ca2+ ions

thus allowing electrical signals and small molecules to pass from one neuron to the other.

Receptor Activation

Integral feature of local neural inhibitory circuits. Astrocytes have also been observed to communicate with each other, neurons, and other cells through gap junctions. Communication is very fast and permit communication in either direction.

After release, neurotransmitter molecules produce signals in postsynaptic neurons by binding to receptors in the postsynaptic membrane. Each receptor is a protein that contains binding sites for only particular neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters

Ligand – any molecule that binds to another molecule; thus a neurotransmitter is a ligand of its receptor

Chemical messengers released into the synaptic cleft by neurons

Receptor subtypes – different types of receptors with which neurotransmitters bind to. Located in various parts of the brain, they react to neurotransmitters in different ways. This explains why certain ne...