Biopsychology lecture notes PDF

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Stella Vlachou = lecturer...

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31/01/17 Biopsychology Introduction

[email protected] Twitter: #VlachourNeuroLab_DCU

@NeurosciLab_DCU

LinkedIn: Stella (Styliani) Vlachou

(PubMed very useful) What is biopsychology?       

Scientific study of the physiological, evolutionary and developmental mechanisms of behaviour and experience in human and non-human animals Neuropsychology is one of the divisions of biopsychology (psychological effects of brain damage in human patients) Sometimes referred to as psychobiology, but puts emphasis on biology, instead of psychology (so we don’t use that term) Neuroscience is a very integrative discipline – scientific study of the nervous system, the ultimate purpose of nervous system is to produce and control behaviour Biopsychology is a part of neuroscience Divisions of neuroscience: neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, neuroendocrinology, neuropathology, neuropharmacology, neurophysiology, cogntive neuroscience Divisions of biopsychology: physiological psychology, psychopharmacology, neuropsychology, psychophysiology, cognitive neuroscience, comparative psychology

What will we cover this semester?        

Intro to brain and behaviour Genetics, environment, physiological and evolutionary psych Anatomy, structure, organistion of the nervous system Neural conduction and synaptic transmission Research methods and ethics of biopsychology (intro) Biopsychology of motivation (sleep, dreaming, circadian rythyms, drug addiction and rewards) Biopsychology of psychological/psychiatric disorders (schizophrenia, depression, mania, anxiety) – not clinical, instead biological basis Biopsycholoy of emotion, stress and health

Structure and assessments:  

24 hours of lectures, 6 hours of seminars (every other week) In-unit test (50%): 2 hour test on chapters we have covered until and including Week 25, test is in Week 26 (Wednesday 15th March, 9-11am)

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Start studying material in this module from very beginning Exams very specific, don’t care about experiments, don’t care about references Final exam (50%): the rest of the chapters Read seminar material and prepare seminar questions before seminar 25 MCQ (50% of that exam), 1 compulsary essay (30%), 1 choice out of 2 essays (20%) MCQ are detailed, details pointed out in class Essay questions are on topics we have covered in class

Goals of biopsychology:    

Normal human behaviour, human disease, non-human animal behaviour Can we improve normal functioning? Can disease be prevented or cured? Explain human behaviour and cognition at physiological, evolutionary, ontogenetic and functional levels

Biopsychological research   

Human non-human subjects Experimental and non-experimental studies (quasiexperimental studies and case studies) Pure and applied research

Jimmie G 

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Korsakoff’s syndrome symptoms: o Anterograde and retrograde amnesia o Severe memory loss o Confabulation o Meager content in conversation o Lack of insight o Apathy o Gliosis o Hemorrhage or bleedying in mammillary bodies o Damage to dorsomodeial nulceus or anterior group of the thalamus Deficiency in vitamin B1 (thiamine), often found in chronic alcohol dependants Nutrients aren’t properly processed when deficient in thiamine Contribution of case studies, quasiexperiments and experimental studies to help understand Korsakoff’s syndrome

Biological explanations of behaviour

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Physiological o Relates a behaviour to the activity of the barin and other organs o Focuses on chemical reactions that enable hormones to influence brain activity, and pathways by which movement and responses are controlled o Reductionist view Onogenetic o Descirbes the development of a structure or a behaviour o Combined influence of genes, nutrition and experiences in influencing behaviour Evolutionary o Reconstructs the evolutionary history of a structure or behaviour o Inheriting an evolved behaviour from our ancestors Functional o Describes why a structure or behaviour evolved as it did o Distinct to evolutionary approach as post-hoc deduction used, why did this behaviour evolve etc Primary aim of biopsychology: explain human experience, emotion, beliefs, values, behaviours and desires in terms of the physiological basis of them

1/2/17 The Nature-Nurture Debate Uncovered (Genetics, Environment and Evolution)

Genetics     

Inheritance occurs through genes, units of heredity that maintain their structural integrity from one generation to another A gene is a component of a chronosome, which is compose of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a double-stranded module DNA is a model for the synthesis of the single stran ribonulceic acid (RNA) DNA translates info through messenger ribonucleuc acid (mRNA) into amino acids -> proteins which determine the development of the organism Human Genome Project (HGP) world’s largest collaborative biological project

DNA o o o o o o o

2 helical spirals linked by 4 chemic bases (adenine-thymine, cytosine-guanine) Chemical bases are linked in a particular fasion (A with T, G with C) Sugar-phosphate backbone Genetic info is copies and transmitted when the strands separate and join with new complementary bases Genetic code written in triplets of DCA bases Triplet sequence descirbes the types of proteins that will be synthesised, and how they will become assembled Human genome made up of thousands of DNA

How do genes affect behaviour? o Genes determine how amino acids construct proteins and/or enzymes, which then form the cells of the body and nervous system, and the catalysts of chemical reactions in the body o Genes interact with their immediate physical environment and control the development of the foetus o Behaviour is determined by the nervous system interacting with its environment o Carson et al 1997 – incorrect to speak of particular genes for specific behaviours, there are only genes for determining the physical structures and physiological process that underlie behaviour Manedlian genetics: o genes that control a particular trait can have alternative forms called alleles o when corresponding genes inherited from the parents are the same, individual is homozygous for the trait, they will express that characteristic o When alleles are different, the individual is aid to be heterozygosity

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Outcomes of heterozygosity:  Child will display the characteristic descibed by the dominant allele, a characteristic from a recessive allele is not expressed (eye colour)  Child will show effects of both alleles, and with display characteristic that is intermediate between those of offsprings who are homozygous for either allele (skin colour)  Child will show a characteristic that is contributed to by both allels, but is distinctly different from that specified by either allele, this is co-dominance (blood type) Recent evidence that characteristics are not always controlled by a single gene, or genes may be expressed partly

Chromosomes: o o o o o o

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46 chromosomes, 23 pairs 44 autosomal chromosomes 2 sex-linked chromosomes X chromosomes carry many genes (for about 1,500 proteins) Y chromosomes only carry a few genes (for 27 proteins) Sex chromosome-linked disorders o Females receive 2 X chromosomes, so safer if get defective gene from one parent, but males have to inherit X chromosome from mother o Asymmetry leaves males susceptible to number of genetic defects that don’t affect females o Colour blindness recessive gene: red/green colour blindness is rare in females as both mother and father would have to have the gene o Haemophilia: blood clotting disorder, common in European Royal Families, Queen Vistoria, all females descendents didn’t show the disease, but male descendents did Sex limited genes present in both sexes on autosomal chromosomes, but active only in one sex (genes for chest hair, breast size etc)

From Genes to Behaviour:     

Gene changes: mutation, duplication, deletion Epigenesis describe study of ways in which genes bring about their effects on growth and development, deals with changes in gene expression without modification of DNA sequence Badcock 2000 – genes don’t form bluepring for body/mind as genes don’t specify all details Genotype: particular alleles inherited by the individuals Phenotype: observable characteristics that develop through interactions between alleles

8/2/17 Genetic Determination Cartwright (2000), in animal kingdom there is a spectrum of what we can inherit (genes): 1. Some innate behaviours displayed irrespective of environment (even in isolation, male sticklebacks attack anything red in any situation) 2. Sometimes innate behaviours that are modified by learning (pecking of chicks becomes more specific and accurate through experience) 3. Selectively learned or expressed behaviours, must be some genetic influence (male chaffinches pick out characteristic sound of their own speicies when learnin to sing) 4. Learned behaviour, unlikely genetic influence, much of human behaviour falls into this category (blue tit birds peeling back milk bottle tops)

Heritability      

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Impossible to answer which is more important, as no behaviour can develop without both, can’t isolate behaviour from genes Better question: do differences depend more on differences in heredity or differences in environment Degree to which differences in a characteristic are due to genetic differences is called heritability Always takes a value between 0 and 1, eye colour has heritability of 1, i.e. environment plays no role Artificial selection Tyron (1940) trained rates to find their way through a maze. He selectively bred the fastest and the slowest. Over 21 generations two clear groups emerged: o ‘Dulls’ and ‘Brights’ o Clear indication of genetic influence Family studies We can take a specific family member (proband) and compare their behaviours with people of differeing genetic relatedness If characteristic is more common in closely related individuals then we may conclude that it has a genetic component Twin studies: comparing identical (monozygotic/MZ) twins with non-identical (dizygotic/DZ) twins Because MZ twins are genetically identical they should show greater similarites (concordance) in their behaviours than DZ twins Studies of adopted children, studies of ‘virtual twins’ o 2 children same age adopted by same family, completely different genetic background Concordance studies: o some studies have shown that MZ twins show high concordance for many physical and behavioural characteristics Behaviours across the life-span –

Plomin & Defries (1998) verbal ability and spatial ability remained highly correlated between MZ twins MZ twins raised apart (different environment) o Twins reared in same environments, often dressed in same way, parents expect them to behave in the same way o Expectations influence how they do behave o Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart (Bouchard et al, 1990) – MZ twins greater similarites than DZ twins, even when reared apart [40 STUDIES INFLUENCED PSYCH] o However, in many cases the twins were reared with relatives Other heredity-environment evidence: o Specific genes are sometimes linked to specific behaviour/conditions/disorders (depression, alcohol dependance, schizophrenia etc) o Researchers have found evidence for a significant heritability of almost every behaviour they have tested. The only behaviour that has not been found to show significant heritability is religious affiliation o Heritability of a particular trait is specific to a given population or a person’s environment. Estimates of heritability never absolute. (Alcohol abuse genes, but if environment is positive and supportive, maybe show no evidence of it) o Phenylketonuria (PKU), genetic inability to metabiloze the amino acid phenylalanine, leading to its accumulation to toxic levels and, consequently, to impairment of brain development o

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TED TALK JIM FALLON ‘exploring the mind of a killer’ TED TALK ALLAN JONES ‘a map of the brain’

For next seminar TED TALK SUSAN BLACKMORE ‘memes and temes’ Read at least one of the suggested chapters (look at slides) – Pinel, Chapter 2 Read seminar article (Susam Blackmore, Loop page)

8/2/17 Neuroanatomy Nervous system 

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Central nervous system (processes, interprets, stores info, issues orders to muscles, glands, organs) o Brain o Spinal cord (bridge between brain and peripheral nerves) Peripheral nervous system (transmits info to and from the central nervous sytem) o Somatic nervous system (skeletal muscles) o Autonomic nervous system (glands, blood vessels, other organs)  Sympathetic nervous system (mobilizes body for action, energy output)  Parasympathetic nervous system (conserves energy, maintains quiet state)

Autonomic nervous system    

Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves: motor nerves Two-stage neural paths, project from the CNS, synapse on other neurons, which then carry the signal to target organs Sympathetic second-stage enurons: synapse distance from the target organs Parasympathetic second-stage neurons: synapse in very short distance from the targe organs

Cranial nerves    

12 pairs of cranial nerves that project from the brain Numbered in sequence from front to back Either purely sensory (e.g. olfactory and optic nerves), or motor (e.g. facial), or both sensory and motor (e.g. vagus nerves) Importance of cranial nerves – located in specific parts, specific functions, therefore excellent diagnostic tool, especially for tumors, easily identifiable, we know their pathways

Meninges -

membranes covering the brain and spinal cord Protects the brain and the spinal cord from infection, injury etc Different layers 1. Dura mater: outerlayer 2. Arachnoid membrane *Subarachnoid space* - containing blood vessels and cerebrospinal fluid (CFS) 3. Pia mater: innermost meninx

Ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid

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Cebrospinal fluid: produced by choroid plexuses, fills the subarachnois space, the central canal of the spinal cord and the ventricles (all three from a single reservoir of hormones and nutrition for the brain and spinal cord), supports and cushions the brain against mechanical shock If flow of CSF is obstructed? o Hydrocephalus = increased pressure in the brain due to CSF accumulation within the ventricles or a subarachnoid space; overgrown head, mental retardation o Occurred more often in earlier years, when baby was being delivered Four Cerebral ventricles: large internal chamber of the brain, two lateral ventricles, the third and the fourth ventricle

Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) -

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Area of the brain where the ciculatory system is more dense, Forms barrier to keep dangerous molecules from reaching the brain Prevents specific molecules (proteins and other large molecules), toxic substances and drugs from entering the brain Special structure of cerebral blood vessels, with cells tightly packed How can therapeutic or recreational drugs influence the brain? o Smaller molecules, so can go through barrier o Or can mimic natural molecules Some large molecules critical for normal brain funciton are actively transported through cerebral blood vessel walls and enter the brain (e.g. glucose)

15/2/17 Neuroanatomy continued…

Terms for Anatomical Directions in the Nervous System    o o o

Anterior vs posterior = front and back Medial vs lateral = in the middle/central and towards outside Superior (dorsal) vs Inferior (ventral) = facing up and facing down Coronal (frontal) section = vertical slices Sagittal (medial) section = e.g. separating 2 hemispheres is mid-sagittal, etc Horizontal section = slicing across from left to right or vice versa

The Spinal Cord -

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The part of the central nervous system within the spinal column Spinal column: bones of spinal cord, communicates with all sense organs and muscles, except for those on the head Segmented structure, with each segment having a sensory and a motor nerve on each side Spinal cord: o H-shaped grey matter which is densely packed with cell bodies, dendrites and unmyelinated interneurons (don’t have myeline sheath, protective membrane) o Grey matter has dorsal and ventral horns o White matter mainly composed of myelinated axons (long legs of the neurons) o Ventral horns towards stomach/front o Dorsal horns towards the back Bell-Magendie law: the entering dorsal roots carry sensory information, and the exiting ventral roots carry motor information o Cell bodies of sensory neurons: dorsal root ganglia o Cell bodies of motor neurons: located in the spinal cord

Embryonic formulation of the five major divisions of the brain    

Prosencaphalon: forebrain Mesencephalon: midbrain Rhombencephalon: hindbrain Spinal cord

Divisions of the brain -

Hindbrain: o Myelencephalon  Medulla o Metencephalon  Pons  Cerebellum

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Midbrain / Mesencephalon o Tectum o Tegmentum

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Forebrain: o Dienchephalon  Thalamus  Hypothalamus o Telencephalon  Cerebral cortex  Basal ganglia  Hippocampus (means seahorse in Greek)  Amygdala (means almonds in Greek)

Hindbrain – Myelencephalon     

Medulla (medulla oblongata): an enlarged extension of the spinal cord into the skill Controls vital reflexes (such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salication, coughing, sneezing) through the cranial nerves Damage to medulla is fatal (death) Medulla is full of opioid receptors (specific proteins onto which opiates bind to), effect of large doses of opiates, opioid dependent individuals with damage to medulla Medula, pons, midbrain and central structures of the forebrain make up the brainstem

Hindbrain – Metencephalon 

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Pons (Latin for bridge): contains nuclei for several cranial nerves o Axons from each half of the brain cross at the pons to the opposite side of the spinal cord o Medulla and pons contrain the reticular formation and the raphe system Cerebellum: o Containing many deep folds o Controls movement, balance and coordination o Damage to cerebellum: causes coordination and balance deficits, inability to shift attention between visual and acoustic stimuli, or difficulty with sensory timing o Strong implications with cognitive functions such as memory

Midbrain – Mesencephalon 

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Tectum (Latin for roof): composed of two pairs of swellings/bumps, the superior colliculus and the inferior colliculus, both important for sensory processing o Inferior: auditory processing o Superior: visual processing Tementum (Latin for covering): covers several midbrain structures, including nuclei for the 3 rd and 4th crainial nerves, parts of the reticular formation, and extensions of pathways connecting the forebrain with the hindbrain and/or spinal cord o Contains the substantia nigra (beginning of a dopamine-covering pathway) o Contains the periaqueductal grey area (grey matter surrounding the cerebral aqueduct, mediates the analgesic effects of opiate drugs) o Contains the red nucleus

Forebrain 

Limbic system: o Olfactory bulb o Hypothamalamus o Hippocampus o Amygdala o Cingulate gyrus

Forebrain – Diencephalon

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Thalamus: pair of structures in the forebrain, o Which receive sensory information (except for olfactory), o Processes it o Sends this information to the cortex Hypothalamus: ventral to the thalamus, o Contains a number of distinct nuclei o Through nerves of hypothalamic hormones, it conveys messages t...