Divisions of Biopsychology PDF

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Lecture notes on the different branches of biopsychology ...

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Lecture: What is Biological Psychology? Associated Seminar: Divisions of Biopsychology In the Week 1 ‘What is Biological Psychology?’ lecture several different sub-disciplines of Biological Psychology were discussed, as well as an overview of the approaches used within these sub-disciplines. In the remainder of the semester it is important that you are familiar with the different divisions/research methodologies because it is through a combination of these differing approaches that knowledge concerning depression, vision, language etc. has been acquired. Thus the focus of the seminar today will be ensuring that you are familiar with the differing biological psychology sub-disciplines and associated methodologies: Below a number of study abstracts are presented, some that you may have come across before. In small groups, your tasks are as follows: Task One i) Discuss which sub-discipline the area of research would fall into, and what method was used to investigate the reported phenomena Task Two ii) Discuss what alternative approaches (and relatedly, sub-disciplines) could be used in extension regarding the investigated phenomena.

Example: Differential lateralization for positive and negative emotion in the human brain: EEG spectral analysis Geoffrey L. Ahern & Gary E. Schwartz (2002) Neuropsychologia, 6, 745-755 The present experiment utilized EEG spectral analysis to investigate lateralization for emotional processes in the human brain. In frontal zones, a differential lateralization for positive and negative emotion was observed, with relative left-hemispheric activation (as measured by decreases in alpha abundance) for positive emotions and relative righthemispheric activation for negative emotions. In parietal zones, a differential lateralization for verbal and spatial processes was observed, with relative left-hemispheric activation for verbal questions and relative right-hemispheric activation for spatial questions. Examination of EEG bands other than alpha (i.e. delta, theta, beta, and total power) suggested that emotional and cognitive processes are further distinguished by different EEG spectral patterns Put more simply: The present experiment utilized electroencaphalography (EEG) to investigate right/left hemisphere lateralization for emotional processes within the human brain. In frontal brain regions, a differential lateralization for positive and negative emotion was observed, with greater left-hemispheric activation for positive emotions and greater right-hemispheric activation for negative emotions. In parietal brain regions, a differential lateralization for verbal and spatial processes was observed, with greater left-hemispheric activation for verbal questions and greater right-hemispheric activation for spatial questions. Detailed examination of the EEG activity suggested that emotional and cognitive processes are further distinguished by different EEG patterns.

Task 1: Sub-discipline = Psychophysiology, Method/Approach = EEG Task 2: As the results indicate different brain regions are associated with different emotion categories this could be further investigated by: Example Suggestion 1: Approach = Brain-imaging e.g. fMRI. Here the task could be repeated but brain activity recorded to see if the EEG and FMRI results correlate. This extension would fall under the sub-discipline of ‘Cognitive Neuroscience’ Example Suggestion 2: Approach = Laboratory experiment with brain-damaged patients. Here performance on the tasks could be investigated in individuals with damage to left vs. right frontal regions and left vs. right parietal regions. This extension would fall under the sub-discipline of ‘Neuropsychology

Study 1: Visual Scanning of Faces in Autism Kevin A. Pelphrey, Noah J. Sasson, J. Steven Reznick, Gregory Paul, Barbara D. Goldman and Joseph Piven (2002) Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Vol. 32, The visual scan-paths of five high-functioning adult autistic males and five adult male controls were recorded using an infrared corneal reflection technique as they viewed photographs of human faces. Analyses of the scan-path data revealed marked differences in the scan-paths of the two groups. The autistic participants viewed non-feature areas of the faces significantly more often and core feature areas of the faces (i.e., eyes, nose, and mouth) significantly less often than did control participants. Across both groups of participants, scanpaths generally did not differ as a function of the instructions given to the participants (i.e., “Please look at the faces in any manner you wish.” vs. “Please identify the emotions portrayed in these faces.”). Autistic participants showed a deficit in emotion recognition, but this effect was driven primarily by deficits in the recognition of fear. Collectively, these results indicate disorganized processing of face stimuli in autistic individuals and suggest a mechanism that may sub-serve the social information processing deficits that characterize autism spectrum disorders. Put more simply: The visual eye movements of five high-functioning adult autistic males and five adult male controls were recorded using eye-tracking technology. Analyses of the eye movement data revealed marked differences in the eye movements of the two groups. The autistic participants viewed non-feature areas of the faces significantly more often and core feature areas of the faces (i.e., eyes, nose, and mouth) significantly less often than did control participants. Across both groups of participants, eye movements generally did not differ as a function of the instructions given to the participants (i.e., “Please look at the faces in any manner you wish.” vs. “Please identify the emotions portrayed in these faces.”). Autistic participants showed a deficit in emotion recognition, but this effect was driven primarily by deficits in the recognition of fear. Collectively, these results indicate disorganized processing of face stimuli in autistic individuals and suggest a mechanism that may underlie the social information processing deficits that characterize autism spectrum disorders.

Study 2: A Double-blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Fluoxetine in Children and Adolescents With Depression Graham J. Emslie, MD; A. John Rush, MD; Warren A. Weinberg, MD; Robert A. Kowatch, MD; Carroll W. Hughes, PhD; Tom Carmody, PhD; Jeanne Rintelmann (2007) Archives of general psychiatry, 54, 1031-7. Background: Depression is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in children and adolescents. To date, randomized, controlled, double-blind trials of antidepressants (largely tricyclic agents) have yet to reveal that any antidepressant is more effective than placebo. This article is of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of fluoxetine in children and adolescents with depression. Method: Ninety-six child and adolescent outpatients (aged 7-17 years) with nonpsychotic major depressive disorder were randomized (stratified for age and sex) to 20 mg of fluoxetine or placebo and seen weekly for 8 consecutive weeks. Randomization was preceded by 3 evaluation visits that included structured diagnostic interviews during 2 weeks, followed 1 week later by a 1-week, single-blind placebo run-in. Primary outcome measurements were the global improvement of the Clinical Global Impressions scale and the Children's Depression Rating Scale—Revised, a measure of the severity depressive symptoms. Results: Of the 96 patients, 48 were randomized to fluoxetine treatment and 48 to placebo. Using the intent to treat sample, 27 (56%) of those receiving fluoxetine and 16 (33%) receiving placebo were rated "much" or "very much" improved on the Clinical Global Impressions scale at study exit (ϰ2=5.1, df=1, P=.02). Significant differences were also noted in weekly ratings of the Children's Depression Rating Scale—Revised after 5 weeks of treatment (using last observation carried forward). Equivalent response rates were found for patients aged 12 years and younger (n=48) and those aged 13 years and older (n=48). However, complete symptom remission (Children's Depression Rating Scale—Revised ≤28) occurred in only 31% of the fluoxetine-treated patients and 23% of the placebo patients. Conclusion: Fluoxetine was superior to placebo in the acute phase treatment of major depressive disorder in child and adolescent outpatients with severe, persistent depression. Complete remission of symptoms was rare.

Put more simply: Background: Depression is a major cause of disease and death in children and adolescents. To date, randomized, controlled, double-blind trials of antidepressants (largely tricyclic agents) have yet to reveal that any antidepressant drug is more effective than placebo. This article is of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of the anti-depressant drug fluoxetine in children and adolescents with depression. Method: Ninety-six child and adolescent outpatients (aged 7-17 years) with nonpsychotic major depressive disorder were randomized (stratified for age and sex) to 20 mg of fluoxetine or placebo and seen weekly for 8 consecutive weeks. Randomization was preceded by 3 evaluation visits that included structured diagnostic interviews during 2 weeks, followed 1 week later by a 1-week, single-blind placebo run-in. Primary outcome measurements were the global improvement of the Clinical Global Impressions scale and the Children's Depression Rating Scale—Revised, a measure of the severity depressive symptoms. Results: Of the 96 patients, 48 were randomized to fluoxetine treatment and 48 to placebo. 27 (56%) of those receiving fluoxetine and 16 (33%) receiving placebo were rated "much" or "very much" improved on the Clinical Global Impressions scale at study exit (ϰ2=5.1, df=1,

P=.02). Significant differences were also noted in weekly ratings of the Children's Depression Rating Scale. However, complete recovery from Depression (Complete Symptom remission as measured by the Children's Depression Rating Scale) occurred in only 31% of the fluoxetine-treated patients and 23% of the placebo patients. Conclusion: Fluoxetine was superior to placebo in the acute phase treatment of major depressive disorder in child and adolescent outpatients with severe, persistent depression. Complete remission of symptoms was rare.

Study 3: Mother-infant separation in the patas monkey. Preston, David G.; Baker, Robert P.; Seay, Bill Developmental Psychology, Vol 3, 298-306

[We] Found that the 6 7-month-old patas monkey infants used as subjects showed the typical initial agitation and subsequent decline in social behavior during a 3-week separation. An increase in peer interaction, rather than the common rise in maternal interaction found in other species, followed reunion. 3 factors may interact to produce a less severe separation reaction and increased peer interaction following separation, as compared to the results of macaque studies: (a) patas tend to be more permissive mothers; (b) patas infants have a longer, more intense, early mother-infant relationship; and (c) contact play is a secondary play pattern in patas, but is the primary play pattern in macaques Put more simply: It was found that the 6 7-month-old monkey infants used as experimental subjects showed the typical initial agitation and subsequent decline in social behavior during a 3-week separation. Following reunion with the group, an increase in interaction with playmates, rather than increased maternal interaction (as in other species), was found. 3 factors may interact to produce a less severe separation reaction and increased interaction with playmates following separation, as compared to the results of macaque monkey studies: (a) patas tend to be more permissive mothers; (b) patas infants have a longer, more intense, early mother-infant relationship; and (c) contact play is a secondary play pattern in patas, but is the primary play pattern in macaques

Study 4: The Serotonin Transporter Gene Alters Sensitivity to Attention Bias Modification: Evidence for a Plasticity Gene Elaine Fox, Konstantina Zougkou,Anna Ridgewell, Kelly Garner (2011) Biological Psychiatry, 70, 1049-1054 Background Attention bias modification (ABM) procedures have been shown to modify biased attention with important implications for emotional vulnerability and resilience. The use of ABM to reduce potentially toxic biases, for instance, is a newly emerging therapy for anxiety disorders. A separate line of gene-by-environment interaction research proposes that many socalled vulnerability genes or risk alleles are better seen as plasticity genes, as they seem to make individuals more susceptible to environmental influences for better and for worse. Methods A standard ABM procedure was used with a sample of 116 healthy adults. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two training groups. One received an ABM procedure designed to induce a bias in attention toward negative material, while the other was trained toward positive pictures. Individuals with low- and high-expressing forms of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) were compared. Results Those with a low-expression form (S/S, S/Lg, or Lg/Lg) of the 5-HTTLPR gene developed stronger biases for both negative and positive affective pictures relative to those with the high-expression (La/La) form of the gene. Conclusions Here, we report the first evidence that allelic variation in the promotor region of the 5HTTLPR gene predicts different degrees of sensitivity to ABM. These results suggest a potential cognitive mechanism for the gene-by-environment interactions that have been found in relation to the serotonin transporter gene. Variation on this genotype may therefore determine who will benefit most (and least) from therapeutic interventions, adversity, and supportive environments

Put more simply: Background Attentional training procedures have been shown to modify biased attention with important implications for emotional vulnerability and resilience. The use of attentional training to reduce potentially maladaptive biases, is a newly emerging therapy for anxiety disorders. A separate line of gene-by-environment interaction research proposes that many so-called vulnerability (susceptibility) genes are better seen as ‘plasticity’ genes, as they seem to make individuals more susceptible to environmental influences for better and for worse. Methods A standard attentional training procedure was used with a sample of 116 healthy adults. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two training groups. One received a training procedure designed to induce a bias in attention toward negative material, while the other was trained toward positive pictures. Individuals with low- and high-expressing forms of the serotonin transporter gene were compared. Results

Following attentional training, those with a low-expression form of the serotonin transporter gene developed stronger biases for both negative and positive emotional pictures relative to those with the high-expression form of the gene. Conclusions Here, we report the first evidence that variation in the serotonin transporter gene predicts different degrees of sensitivity to attentional training. These results suggest a potential cognitive mechanism for the gene-by-environment interactions that have been found in relation to the serotonin transporter gene. Investigating variations of this genotype may therefore determine which individuals will benefit most (and least) from therapeutic interventions such as attentional training.

Study 5: The spatial distribution and temporal dynamics of brain regions activated during the perception of object and non-object patterns Frances A. Maratos, Stephen J. Anderson, Arjan Hillebrand, Krish D. Singh and Gareth R. Barnes (2007) Neuroimage, 371-87 Both animal and human studies suggest that the efficiency with which we are able to grasp objects is attributable to a repertoire of motor signals derived directly from vision. This is in general agreement with the long-held belief that the automatic generation of motor signals by the perception of objects is based on the actions they afford. In this study we used magnetoencephalography (MEG) to determine the spatial distribution and temporal dynamics of brain regions activated during the perception of object and non-object targets that varied in the extent to which they afforded a grasping action. Synthetic Aperture Magnetometry (SAM) was used to localise task-related oscillatory power changes within specific frequency bands, and the time-course of activity within given regions-of-interest was determined by calculating time-frequency plots using a Morlet wavelet transform. Both single subject and groupaveraged data on the spatial distribution of brain activity are presented. We show: (i) passive viewing of both objects and non-objects yielded significant reductions in 10-25 Hz activity within the extra-striate cortex, occipito-temporal cortex, sensori-motor cortex and cerebellum; and (ii) only the perception of objects yielded significant reductions in oscillatory activity within the posterior part of the superior parietal cortex (area Ba7). Assuming focal reductions in low-frequency oscillations (< 30 Hz) reflect areas of heightened neural activity, we conclude: (i) activity within a network of brain areas, including the sensori-motor cortex, is not critically dependent on stimulus type and may reflect the analysis of low-level image features and/or general changes in attentional modulation; and (ii) a posterior part of the superior parietal cortex, area Ba7, is activated preferentially by objects and may play a role in computations related to affordance for grasping.

Put more simply: Both animal and human studies suggest that the efficiency with which we are able to grasp objects is attributable to a number of motor patterns derived directly from vision. This is in agreement with the belief that the automatic generation of motor signals by the perception of objects is based on the actions that are associated with them. In this study we used magnetoencephalography (MEG) to determine the timing and spatial pattern of brain regions activated during the viewing of object and non-object stimuli that varied in the extent to which they are associated with a grasping action. A new MEG analysis technology was used to localise brain activity across space and time. Both data from single participants and the averaged group data are presented. We show: (i) that the passive viewing of both objects and non-object stimuli resulted in changes of brain activity within the extra-striate cortex, occipito-temporal cortex, sensori-motor cortex and cerebellum; and (ii) only the perception of object stimuli resulted in changes of brain activity within the posterior part of the superior parietal cortex (area Ba7). We conclude that: (i) activity within a network of brain areas, including the sensori-motor cortex, is not critically dependent on stimulus type and may reflect the analysis of low-level image features or general changes in attention; and (ii) a posterior part of the superior parietal cortex, area Ba7, is activated preferentially by objects and may play a role in brain computations related to object grasping.

Study 6: Prosopagnosia in two patients with CT scan evidence of damage confined to the right hemisphere Ennio De Renzi (1986) Neuropsychologia, 24, 385–389

Two patients developed a severe and long-lasting inability to recognize familiar faces (prosopagnosia) after a stroke, which was shown by CT scan to be confined to the right hemisphere. The area of softening involved the entire cortico-subcortical territory of distribution of the right posterior cerebral artery. These data suggest that in a few cases right occipito-temporal damage may be sufficient to produce prosopagnosia. Put more simply: Two patients developed a severe and long-lasting inability to recognize familiar faces (prosopagnosia) after a stroke, which was shown by computerised tomography (CT) scan to be confined to the right hemisphere. The area of damage was spread across the entire corticosubcortical region of the right posterior cerebral artery. These data suggest that in a few cases right occip...