BME 107 Notes - Hope this helps! PDF

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Summary

BME 107: SU1- LIFE, CELLS, BODY AND EVERYTHING IN BETWEEN6 Structural Levels Chemical – atoms  molecules Cells – molecules  organelles cells Tissues – similar group of cells (4 types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous) Organs – different types of tissues working together Organ Systems – gro...

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BME 107: SU1- LIFE, CELLS, BODY AND EVERYTHING IN BETWEEN 6 Structural Levels 1. Chemical – atoms � molecules 2. Cells – molecules � organelles �cells 3. Tissues – similar group of cells (4 types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous) 4. Organs – different types of tissues working together 5. Organ Systems – group of organs working together 6. Organism – all the set of organ systems working together

Characteristics of Life (OMARRIGH) 1. Organisation: organisms working and interacting together 2. Metabolism: energy needed to perform vital functions 3. Adaptability: adapt and evolve based on changes 4. Responsiveness: sense changes in environment and make adjustments in life 5. Reproduction and Heredity: creation of new cells and passing of genetic information 6. Interaction: communication with other living things 7. Growth and Development: Increase in size and changes in organism throughout lifetime 8. Homeostasis: Existence and Maintenance of constant environment in body despite fluctuations in internal and external environments

Homeostasis Maintenance of constant internal environment through variables Response to environment to maintain internal conditions Controlled by nervous system and endocrine system 3 components (RCE) 1. Receptor: monitor value of stimulus by detecting stimuli 2. Control center: set point for variable to receive input 3. Effector: changes in value of variable directed by control center Negative Feedback Homeostasis Stimulus initiates actions that reverse/reduce stimuli Cancels/counteracts original stimulus Deviation from set point made smaller Maintains variation within normal range E.g. Increase in Blood Pressure

Positive Feedback Homeostasis Initial stimulus further stimulates response (enhance response) Deviation from set point becomes greater E.g. Bleeding (Tear in blood vessel walls)

Body Positions o Person standing upright with upper limbs hanging to each side and palm of hands facing forward Supine Lying Facing Upward Prone Laying facing Downward

Directional Terms o Body parts relative to each other Right Left Superior Inferior

Right Left Above Below

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Anterior Posterior Proximal Distal Medial Lateral Superficial Deep

Front (Ventral) Back (Dorsal) Near Distant Towards midline Away from midline Close of surface of body Inside body

Directional Regions Axial Trunk Head Neck Appendicular Upper Limb Arm Forearm Wrist Hand

Thorax (Chest)

Shoulder �Elbow Elbow �Wrist

Abdomen (Belly)

Pelvis (Hips)

Lower Limb Thigh Leg Ankle Foot

Hip �Knee Knee �Ankle

Planes o

Sectioning body to look inside and observe body structure

Sagittal Transverse Frontal Longitudinal Transverse Oblique

Vertically through body (Median) Parallel to ground/surface (Horizontal) Vertically from left to right (Coronal) Along length of organ Cut through organ (cross-section) Cut diagonally across long axis

Subdivisions of Abdomen Quadrant (4 parts) Right-upper quadrant Right-lower quadrant Regions (9 parts) Right hypochondriac region Right lumbar region Right iliac region

Left-upper quadrant Left-lower quadrant Epigastric region Umbilical region Hypogastric region

Left hypochondriac region Left lumbar region Left iliac region

Cavities 1. Nasal Cavity 2. Thoracic Cavity 3. Abdominal Cavity 4. Pelvic Cavity 1. Thoracic Cavity - consists of oesophagus, trachea, blood vessels, thymus and heart - surrounded by rib cage

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- separated from abdominal cavity via diaphragm - Mediastinum: between 2 lungs located on each side of thoracic cavity 2. Abdominal Cavity - contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas and kidneys 3. Pelvic Cavity - enclosed by pelvic bones - contains urinary bladder, part of large intestines, internal reproductive organs

Serous Membranes o

Cavities are lined with serous membranes and cover organs of these cavities Inner wall: Visceral serous membrane Outer wall: Parietal serous membrane Serous liquid: serous membranes are filled with fluid produced by membranes, so that organs do not rub against each other, it reduces friction

Thoracic Cavity o Contains 3 serous membrane-lined cavities Pericardial Cavity Surrounds heart Pleural Cavity

Surrounds each lungs

Pleural Cavity

Abdominopelvic Cavity o

Serous membrane-lined cavity: Peritoneal Cavity

Infections 1. Pericarditis – inflammation in pericardium 2. Pleurisy – inflammation in pleura 3. Peritonitis – inflammation in peritoneum 1. Appendicitis: bacterial infection in appendix. Ruptures walls releasing bacteria into peritoneal cavity causing peritonitis

Mesenteries (Fusion) o o

Connects 2 peritoneum layers together (fuses) Connects visceral peritoneum of some abdominopelvic organs to parietal peritoneum on visceral peritoneum of other abdominopelvic organs Function: Anchors organ to body wall and provide pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach organs

The Cell Organelles Nucleus

Location Near centre of cell

Ribosomes

Cytoplasm

Functions Contains DNA in chromosome form and nucleoli (genes) Surrounded by Nuclear envelope Protein synthesis of RNA Ribosomal subunit assembly Protein synthesis

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Stationary VS Mobile Ribosomes attached Protein synthesis Lipid synthesis Detoxification Modify protein structure Packages proteins in secretory vesicles

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Cytoplasm

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Cytoplasm

Golgi apparatus

Cytoplasm

Secretory vesicles Vacuoles

Cytoplasm Cytoplasm

Lysosome

Cytoplasm

Mitochondria

Cytoplasm

Microtubule Centrioles Cilia

Cytoplasm Cytoplasm Cell surface with many on each cells Sperm cell surface, 1 per each cell Extensions of cell surface with many on each cell Outer area surrounding cell membrane

Flagella Microvilli Cytoskeleton

Membrane bound sacs Storage containers Contains digestive enzyme Variable shapes Remove undigested material out of cell Site of Aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis More active tissues will have more mitochondria Contains own genetic material – Maternal Mitochondria DNA Tracing

Microtubules, Microfilaments, intermediate filaments Centrioles Cilia, Flagella and Microvilli Keeps the shape of the cell intact (Scaffolding)

Functions of Cell (CSCR)

1. Cell metabolism and energy use

2. Synthesis of molecules

3. Communication

Chemical reactions that occur within cells. Energy released during cell metabolism are used for cell activities Cell synthesise various types of molecules. Different cells of body do not product same molecules. The structural and functional characteristics of cells are determined by types of molecules produced Cell produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that allow them to communicate with one another

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4. Reproduction and Inheritance

Each cell contains genetic information of individual specialised cell that can be passed on to next generation

Moving Across Membrane o Cells are semi-permeable o Controls the number of things that can leave and enter the cell membrane o Nutrients enter and waste products leave Active Transport: require energy in the form of ATP Passive Transport: does not require energy Active Endocytosis Exocytosis Phagocytosis Pinocytosis Secretion Type Diffusion

Osmosis

Passive Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated Diffusion Filtration

Types and Characteristics of Movement across Membranes Transport Solute particles occur in area of higher concentration than in area of lower concentration because particles move randomly, the chances are great At equilibrium, movement of solutes in one direction is balanced by equal movement of solutes in opposite direction With concentration gradient through lipid portions of cell membrane In body: Low Extracellular concentration of oxygen � Not enough oxygen diffuses into cell � Cannot function normally Phospholipid bilayer: barrier to most water-soluble materials where some can pass through but others can only go through via diffusion by passing through cell membranes Diffusion of water across partially permeable membrane from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration (movement depends on the knowing which side has higher water concentration) With concentration gradient through lipid portions of cell membrane

Requires ATP No

Examples O2, CO2, Cl-, Urea

No

Water

Osmotic Pressure: force required to prevent movement of water 1. water moves via osmosis through membrane into tube forcing solution to rise 2. solution rises, weight produced osmotic pressure 3. water moves out of tube back to distilled water surrounding tube NO Net Movement: Osmotic pressure in tube = Hydrostatic pressure Cell’s shape changes based on the concentration gradient between solution and cell’s cytoplasm 1. Hypotonic: solution has higher water concentration and lower concentration of solutes compared to cytoplasm of cell. Water moves in through osmosis, causing the cell to swell. Too much swelling causes rupture (Lysis) 2. Isotonic: concentration of solutes and water is the same on the

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Filtration

Facilitated Diffusion

Active Transport

Secondary Active Transport

Endocytosis

Exocytosis

inside and outside of the cell membrane. No changes occur. 3. Hypertonic: solution has higher solute concentration and lower water concentration compared to cytoplasm of cell. Water moves out through osmosis causing cell to shrink (Crenation) Fluids move through the partition containing small holes. Fluid movement results from hydrostatic pressure or weight of water pushing against the holes E.g. Filtration - Blood pressure in body With concentration gradient by carrier molecule Carrier-mediated transport that moves substances across cell from higher concentration to lower concentration Movement with concentration gradient does not require ATP Against concentration gradient by carrier molecules Carrier mediated process that moves substances across cell membrane from lower concentration to higher concentration against concentration gradient Require ATP, if malfunction can lead to health problems E.g. Cystic fibrosis: genetic disorder that affects active transport of Clinto cells Against concentration gradient by carrier molecules Diffusion of transported substance down concentration gradient provide energy to transport second substance Co-transport: diffusing substance in same direction as transported substance Counter-transport: diffusing substance in opposite direction as transported substance Material move into cell through vesicles Receptor-mediated endocytosis: substance bind to receptor molecules, trigger endocytosis and substance transported into cell Phagocytosis: ingest solid particles Pinocytosis: ingest liquid

Material move out of cells through vesicles Secretory vesicles move to cell membrane where vesicle fuses with cell membrane and material in vesicle is moved out

No

No

Glucose in most cells

Yes

Na+, K+, Ca2+, H+ and amino acids

Yes

Glucose, amino acids

Yes

Particlesphagocytosis/ receptormediated endocytosis, Liquidspinocytosis Secretion of proteins

Yes

Tissues 1. Epithelial Tissue – Cover surfaces 2. Connective Tissue – Connect different organs and muscles 3. Muscle Tissue – Movement 4. Nervous Tissue – Feel/ sense different stimulus

Epithelial Tissues o Covers/ protects surface outside/ inside of body Characteristics: 1. Mostly made of cells 2. Covers body surfaces 3. Distinct cell surface 4. Cell and matrix connections 5. Nonvascular 6. Capable of regeneration

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Functions: 7. 8. 9. 10.

Protect underlying structures Acting as barrier Permit passage of substances Secrete/ absorb substances

Classification of Epithelial Tissues Tissue Simple Squamous Epithelium

Location o Mesothelia lining of ventral body cavities o Endothelia lining of heart and blood vessels o Portions of kidney tubules o Inner lining of cornea, alveoli of lungs

Functions 1. Reduce Friction 2. Control vessel permeability 3. Perform absorption and secretion

Example Peritoneal Cavity Lining

1. Provide physical protection against abrasion, pathogens and chemical attacks

Tongue Surface

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

o o

Surface of skin Lining of mouth, throat, oesophagus, rectum, anus and vagina

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

o

Glands, ducts, portion of 1. Limited protection, secretion and kidney tubules and absorption thyroid glands

Kidney Tubule

Simple Columnar Epithelium

o

Lining of stomach, intestine, gall bladder, uterine tubes Collecting ducts of kidneys

1. Protection, secretion and absorption

Intestine lining

Lining of nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi and portion of male reproductive tract

1. Protection and secretion

Trachea

o Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

o

Organ Systems System Urinary System

Integumentary System

Skeletal System

Muscular System

Function Remove waste products from blood and regulates blood pH, ion and water balance Provide protection, regulates temperature, prevent water loss and produce vitamin D precursors Provide protection and support body movements, produce blood cells and store minerals and fats Produce body movements, maintains posture and produce body heat

Contains Kidneys Urinary bladder Ducts carrying urine Skin Hair Nails Sweat glands Bones Cartilages Ligaments Joints Muscles attached to skeleton by tendons

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Lymphatic System

Remove foreign substances from blood and lymph Combat diseases Maintains tissue fluid balance Absorb fats from digestive system Exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and air Regulates blood pH Performs mechanical and chemical processes of digestion Absorption of nutrients and elimination of wastes

Respiratory System

Digestive System

Nervous System

Endocrine System

Cardiovascular System

Major regulatory system that detects sensations, control movements physiological processes and intellectual functions Major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction Transports nutrients , waste products, gases and hormones throughout body Plays a role in immune response Regulation of body temperature

Lymphatic vessels Lymph nodes Lymphatic organs

Lungs Respiratory passages Mouth Oesophagus Stomach Intestines Accessory organs Brain Spinal Cord Nerves Sensory receptors Pituitary gland

Heart Blood vessels Blood

BME 107: SU2- RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Respiratory System 1. 2.

Upper Respiratory System (Conducting zone) Lower Respiratory System (Respiratory zone)

Upper Respiratory System Functions: 1. Allow air to enter and leave 2. Filter out air from unwanted particles 3. Humidify the air (cold and warm air enters)

Lower Respiratory System Single passageway that branches out into right and left bronchioles and it branches even further to into alveoli levels to reach smallest parts of the body with air. Important Parts in Respiratory System 1. Nose 2. Nasal Cavity

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3. Pharynx 4. Larynx 5. Trachea 6. Bronchi � Alveoli

Nose (consists of external nares + nasal cavity) o o o o

Nares/ Nostrils: external openings of nose Conchae: Opening into pharynx Nasal Septum: separates nasal cavity into right and left parts Frontal Sinus: Small pair of air filled cavity behind the eyes of the brow region, produces mucus and drains through nasal passages

Nasal Conchae o o

Present on lateral walls of nasal cavity Increase surface area of nasal cavity and cause air to churn so that it can be cleansed, humidified and warmed

Nasal Cavity o

o o

Lined with epithelial cells 1. pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells: rest of nasal cavity 2. stratified squamous epithelial cells: lining of cavity with coarse hairs Function: Helps to secrete mucus to trap airborne particles Process: 1. Coarse hairs in nares and mucus produced by goblet cells trap large particles 2. Cilia sweeps the mucus through pharynx, where it enters the stomach where the acidic juices kills the bacteria trapped 3. Air warmed by blood vessels underlying mucus epithelium, humidified by moisture in mucus

Paranasal Sinuses o o

Air filled cavities Functions: 1. Lighten/ Reduce the weight of the skull as it is dense and heavy 2. Produce Mucus to trap air particles and swallow them to digest them out 3. Influence quality of voice by acting as resonating chambers 4. Detect odours in the air

Olfactory Systems 1. Olfactory Bulb 2. Mitral Cells 3. Bone 4. Nasal Epithelium 5. Glomerulus 6. Olfactory receptor cells o o

Type of receptor cells where it can detect small number of related molecules and thereby responding with greater intensity than others The receptors are activated by binding of central molecules which sends electrical impulse through micro region of olfactory bulb or glomerulus

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o o

The nerve cells receive information passes it on through other nerves that link back to brain The brain will be able to interpret various odour and patterns produced by various activity/activation of different olfactory receptor cells

Pharynx o o o o

Common passageway for food / air / produce sound Lined by mucosal containing skeletal muscle which are used for swallowing, able to stretch to swallow food Pharynx � lead to rest of respiratory system � larynx � oesophagus 3 regions: 1. Nasopharynx 2. Oropharynx 3. Laryngopharynx

Nasopharynx o o

Contains pharyngeal tonsils Functions: helps to fight off infections, by giving immune defence to this area of body

Oropharynx o o

Contains palatine tonsils Aids body’s immune defense

Laryngopharynx o Junction of the bottom section of pharynx that has division between trachea and oesophagus How to ensure food does not enter the wrong pipe? o Epiglottis is a little cartilaginous flap that moves as we swallow food o It folds to cover the trachea when food slides down oesophagus

Larynx o o

o o o

Provide passageway between pharynx and trachea Functions: 1. Maintains open airway, Help to conduct air into respiratory tract 2. Protect airway during swallowing 3. Produce voice, Houses vocal cords to produce sound Supported by 9 cartilaginous pieces (3 individual and 3 pairs) They are held in place by various ligaments and muscles Within larynx consists of different vocal cords that helps to produce various sounds

Trachea o o o

Long pipe with C-shaped cartilaginous rings, these are semi-wall as rigid that helps to hold passage way open Important to keep airway open all the time Contains lining which is called mucous glands (pseudostratified ciliated columnar ...