Cereal crop production PDF

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04/09/2012 TN Bhusal Assistant Professor (Agronomy) Department of Plant Science IAAS-Lamjung TN Bhusal 1 04/09/2012 What are cereals………………. Are grasses (i.e. members of the monocot families Poaceae or Gramineae) cultivated for the edible components of their fruit seeds (botanically, a type of fruit ...

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04/09/2012

TN Bhusal Assistant Professor (Agronomy) Department of Plant Science IAAS-Lamjung

TN Bhusal

1

04/09/2012

What are cereals………………. Are grasses (i.e. members of the monocot families Poaceae or Gramineae) cultivated for the edible components of their fruit seeds (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis): the endocarp, germ, and bran Word cereal derives from Ceres, the name of the Roman goddess of harvest and agriculture Called staple crops………….Why?
grown in greater quantities and
provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop

In natural form (as in whole grain): rich source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils, and protein

What are cereals……………contd…. All are annual plants; consequently one planting yields one harvest Cool season: Wheat, Barley, Triticale, Buckwheat, Oat, Rye Warm season: Rice, Maize, Sorghum, Millets Maize, wheat & Rice :- accounts 87% of all grain production worldwide and 43% of all food calories Deficit in essential amino acids like lysine and thryonine (which pulses contain) but rich in tryptophan and methionine (deficit in many pulses)……..so Cereals+Pulses = balanced diet

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Worldwide area & production situation Table: Area, production and yield of cereals in world during 2007 Crops

Area (million ha)

Production (million metric Yield (t/ha) tons)

Rice

155.81

659.59

4.23

Wheat

214.20

605.99

2.83

Maize

158.03

791.80

5.01

Barley

55.44

133.43

2.40

Millets

34.96

33.94

0.97

Buckwheat

2.72

2.01

0.74

Triticale

………

12

……….

Worldwide production trend 1961 2005 2006 2007

700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

Production

2500

2101

Production (million metric tons)

Production (million metric tons)

800

1930.5

2000

1887.5 1535

1500 1171

1000 500 0 1970 1980 1990 1995 2004 2007

Years

Figure: Cereal crops Figure:

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2057

Trend of total cereals grains production in world during 1970-2007

Status of cereals crops production in world during 1961-2007

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Area & production situation of Nepal Table: Area, production and yield of cereals in Nepal during 2008/09 Crops

Area (million ha)

Production (million metric Yield (t/ha) tons)

Rice

1.55

4.52

2.92

Wheat

0.69

1.34

1.94

Maize

0.87

1.93

2.22

Barley

0.025

0.023

0.92

Millets

0.26

0.29

1.12

Others

0.015

0.017

1.14

Total

3.41

8.12

2.38

Trend of area coverage & production in Nepal Area

9000

Production

8000

8000

7000

7000

6000

6000

5000

5000

4000

4000

3000

3000

2000

2000

1000

Production ('000 metric tons)

Area ('000 ha)

9000

1000 1964/65

1984/85

1994/95

2002/03

2007/08

2009/10

Years

Figure: Area coverage and production of total cereal crops in Nepal (1964/65-2009/10)

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Constraints and opportunities Climatic potential and constraints Falls in subtropical climatic range (i.e 26022’’-30027’’ N) Characterized by high temperature (mean daily temp 27-280C) during summer and low temperature (mean daily temp 17180C) during winter season, 750-2250 mm mean annual rainfall, 60-8848m altitude Rainfall amount and characteristics
Primary source of agriculture water
1200-2250 mm rainfall in hills; 1000-1500 mm over most of the country; higher rain in eastern part and lower in western part
Large inter-annual variability of rainfall :- results in climatic hazards particularly flooding and droughts with devastating effects on food production
Frequent occurrence of drought occasioned by erratic rainfall distribution and/or cessation of rain during growing season
Mostly one peak duration referred to as unimodal rainfall distribution pattern

Average total rainfall, mm

500 450

Rainfall

400 350 300

Table: Mean maximum and mean minimum temperature at Rampur, Chitwan (mean of 2005-2008) Months

250

Mean of 4 yrs Tmax

200

Tmin

150

Jan

22.67

8.36

100

Feb

25.90

10.98

March

31.57

14.05

April

35.56

18.66

May

35.64

22.55

June

34.81

24.97

July

33.27

25.73

August

33.54

25.56

Sept

33.36

24.46

Oct

32.02

21.56

Nov

28.62

13.80

Dec

24.43

10.04

50 0

Months Figure: Average total rainfall pattern over a year at Rampur, Chitwan (mean of 2005-2008)

Temperature/Solar radiation
High solar radiation accompany by uniformly high air temperature with moderate drop in November/December


Affects cereal production by controlling the rate of physiochemical rxn and that of evaporation of water from crops and soil surfaces

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Affect the rate at which the products of photosynthates used for growth, respiration and food reserves
Require specific photoperiods for optimum yield
Social adaptation option to respond changing climate: alter planting dates, changes to a crop more adaptable to new climate, application of irrigation, change in level of fertilizers, etc

Edaphic potential and constraints
Predominance of fragile ecosystem and low inherited soil fertility
Declining fertility because of soil nutrients mining
Population pressures force farmers to grow crops after crop ‘mining’ or depleting the soil nutrients while giving nothing back to the soil
Low organic matter content of soil where bulk of cereals are produced as a result of high rate of chemical and biological actions
Can enhance by avoiding monocropping, soil erosion, over-grazing & bush burning, adoption of application of animal dung, crop rotation, fertilizer application and use of green manures

Varietal constraints
Adopt local varieties inherited from their great grand father
Have low (1-2t/ha) production potentiality of local varieties
Also photo-sensitive and take longer time to mature


Need to adopt high yielding improved varieties that yield high grains (2-4 t/ha) depending on ecology, crop and management practices adopted
Total released var: Rice: 55; Maize: 19; Wheat: 28; Barley: 6; Fingermillet: 3

Weed constraints
Lead to 100% yield drop by uncontrolled weed in cereals farm as they compete with plants for nutrients, light, space and moisture
Also increase production cost in most cereal fields and often drastically reduced yield as a result of delay weeding due to competition for labour at early crop growth stages Table: Major weeds of cereal crops

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Crops

Major weeds

Estimated yield lost (%)

Rice

Echinochloa colonum, E. crusgalli, Cyperus rotundus, etc

15-90%

Wheat

Chenopodium album, Phalaris minor, Vicia hirsuta, etc

20-40%

Maize

Eclipta alba, E. colonum, Elusine indica, etc

40-60%

Barley

P. minor, Avena fatua, C. album, etc

………..

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Market and trade condition
Fluctuation in price of cereals
For instance, with outbreak of avian influenza, the demand of maize by poultry and poultry processing companies will be affected
Poor demand discourage the maize producers
On the other hand,  Adopt economic liberalization and privatization policy  Member of WTO

Migration
Migration- an age long phenomena in which both young and old human population move to new area to grab better life
Devastating effect on labour force in cereal production due to migration of young and vibrant people
Dependency of resource poor farmers entirely on family labour and it is their young and vibrant migrant group that constitute such labour
To solve the migration: provision of social amenities and employment opportunity in rural areas, give credit facility and subsidies to agricultural inputs to young farmers in rural area

Production and technology
Total annual production of cereal = 8.12 million metric ton
Total population = 26 million
Population growth rate = 2.25%
Ag growth rate = 2.92% (0.9-5.7%)
Cereal crop production growth rate = 0.56% (2007/082008/09)
Still behind the population growth rate so that has high demand of food grains per annum
Unavailability of agro-ecological domain based package of production for all crops
Salient feature of improved technology: quality seeds can increase yields at least 15%, improved tillage methods can reduce water uses in irrigated rice by 50%, improved nutrient management can increase yields by 1-2 t/ha (FAO, 1998)

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Agronomical constraints
Seed availability: poor quality seed, insufficient improved seeds, untimely supply, high price
Seed treatment: no or low practice at farmers level
Improper sowing time: delay sowing of most of the winter seasonal cereals; for instance, November 15 is optimum for wheat sown but it goes to December that reduce yield of wheat grains significantly
Low seed rate: inappropriate final harvestable population
Defective method of sowing: hardly sown in rows
Inadequate interculture: high weed infestation initially, hardly follow interculture in winter seasonal cereals
Insufficient irrigation: need2-3 life saving or protective irrigation; low priority for certain cereals
Improper fertilization: hardly use of complete balance fertilizer, broadcasting rather than row placement, insufficient application of organic manures, no or negligible management of biofertilizer like Azolla

Socioeconomic consideration and government policy
Hinder maximum return to local producers by inconsistent government policy, devalued currencies and price instability
Free trade policy…..easy to enter cereals in domestic market from developed countries and add threats to local producers adopting labour-intensive technology
Need to formulate complementary cereal policies particularly in the development of production infrastructures and input supply- eg.  Permanent banning of import of cereals  Stability of cereal crop price  Consistent subsidy of agricultural inputs  Provision of infrastructures like road and water to farming communities


Low yield of cereals ascribe to –  Increase cost of production  Lack of fertilizers  Non-maintenance of irrigation facilities  Lack of labour (demand in transplanting, weeding, harvesting, etc.)


Low farm level input use efficiency among poor resource farmers

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Hardly enough to support agriculture sector through the provided development plans and annual budget (5.90 billion i.e. 2.5% of total budget of 2008/09)


Poor adaptation of available technology in local biophysical and institutional condition
Very low ratio of extension workers to farmers that lead to reduction of farmers participation in technology transfer and adoption process
Farmer’s perception of new technology is vital for their adoption
Necessary to identify the key characteristics of each technology and challenges it can target for improvement……extension worker that will make this possible
Need for all organs of the government to support and empower agricultural extension workers in order to enhance the dissemination of new technologies to the producers

Pest and diseases
Seriously affect cereal production by disease and pest infestation
Major pests: Termites, stem borer, corn borer, white grub, bugs, plant hopper, birds, mammals like rats , etc.
Major diseases: Blast, rusts, leaf blight, smut (panicle disease), root rot, downy mildew, bacterial diseases (Xanthomonas spp), etc.
Yield lost: upto 80% by downy mildew in maize


Improve yield of cereals definitely by effective management of pest and diseases
Primary source of inoculums: spore balls in soil from previously infested crop residues and surface contaminated seeds used for sowing
Result in substantial losses in grain yield and qualities due to occurrence of the disease during seedling stage Table: Major insects and diseases of cereal crops

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Crops

Major insects

Major diseases

Rice

Rice bug, Rice hispa, Yellow stem borer, Stripped stem borer, Rice gall midge, Mole cricket, Plant hopper, etc

Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas oryzae) Blast (Pyricularia oryzae) False smut (Ustilaginoides virens) Brown leaf spot (Helminthosporium oryzae) Tungro (Tungro virus)

Wheat

Armyworms, Cut worms, Shoot fly, Stem borer, Termites, etc

Leaf spots (Helminthosporium spp) Rusts (P. recondita) Leaf streak (Xanthomonas campestris) Loose smut (Ustilago nuda)

Maize

Stalk borer, Shoot flies, Cut worms, Jassids, Armyworms, etc

Rust (Puccinia polysora) Leaf blight (Helminthosporium maydis) Smut (Specealothica reliana)

Barley

Green bug, Corn sawfly, Fruitfly, Wheat bulb fly, etc

Barley yellow dwarf virus Powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis sp. hordii) Net blotch (Helminthosporium sativum)

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Other factors Illiteracy
Adult literacy rate (ages ≥ 15): 49% (WDR 2008)
Majority of farmers can not read and write which impede their ability to adopt new technologies that could enhance production of cereal crops
Solution: making basic education free and compulsory for all children….government have taken bold step in this direction

Tools
Carry out farm operations from land clearing to crop harvesting and processing using simple tools like hoe, sickle, axe, spades, plough and other local farm implements by majority of farmers
Enhance crop production by using modern farm implements like tractor, harvester, thresher, etc. that reduce drudgery associated with simple tools
Provide credit facility and subsidy in modern agricultural tools to empower rural farmers

Finance
Inadequate capital in farmers hand for purchasing costly inputs such as farm machinery, seeds, fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides which contribute to low cereals production
Inadequate financial mechanism to resource poor farmers
Ameliorate this problem with timely availability of fund to purchase the inputs

Cropping system
Practice of mixed cropping by majority of farmers that do not permit to use modern farm implements and agro-chemicals like herbicides
Encourage farmers to go into large sole cropping to enhance the use of agrochemicals like herbicides that enhance the cereal crop production

Storage facilities
Poor storage facilities enforce farmers to sell their produce at cheaper price during harvest season than the appreciable price during off season
Selling price hardly cover the production cost which discourage farmer to grow cereals in the subsequent growing season

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TN Bhusal Assistant Professor (Agronomy) Department of Plant Science IAAS-Lamjung

Rice (Oryza sativa L) (2N = 24) An annual which usually grows to a ht of ½ m to 2 m but certain varieties grows upto 6-9 m Being a monocot belong to family Gramineae, sub-family Oryzoideae, tribe Oryzeae and genus Oryza A semi-aquatic plant having high amount of K2O and Si that checks rotting under waterlogged condition Has fibrous shallow root, jointed stem (know as culm), rather flat leaves and terminal panicles; rice fruit is botanically caryopsis Presence of aerenchymatous tissue help to survive in waterlogged condition High K presence in straw than its grain while reverse in case of rest cereals Due to presence of air space occurs in endosperms during ripening, white, translucent, waxy or chalkiness substances in rice grain

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Importance A staple food for > 60% of world population & about 90% of all rice produced and consumed only in Asian countries Top most crop in terms of area (55% of cultivated land), production and productivity (2.92 t/ha) Contribution:





Economic growth depends on rice cultivation and production Agriculture = 32.35% to GDP (in 2008/09) Rice = 20.75% of AGDP Per capita dietary energy supply = 38.5% (FAOSTAT) protein supply = 29.4% fat supply = 7.2%
Fulfills >50% of calorie requirement of Nepalese population
Account for about 50% of total food grains production
Main source of household income for farm families (60% population depend on rice)

Primarily a high energy or high calorie food
Total calorie output of total world food is equal to 3119 K cal/person/day at farm gate with rice accounting for 552 K cal/person/day or 18% of total calorie

Nutritive value of grain Table: Nutritive value of rice grain per 100g Components

Amount

Components

Amount

Water (g)

12

Magnesium (mg)

25

Energy (kJ)

1527

Phosphorus (mg)

115

Protein (g)

7

Potassium (mg)

115

Fat (g)

1

Zinc (mg)

1.1

Carbohydrates (g)

79

Panthothenic acid (mg)

1

Fibers (g)

1

Vit B6 (mg)

0.2

Sugars (g)

> 0.1

Folate (μg)

8

Iron (mg)

0.8

Thiamin (mg)

0.1

Manganese (mg)

1.1

Riboflavin (mg)

> 0.1

Calcium (mg)

28

Niacin (mg)

1.6


Digestibility of carbohydrate and protein is high i.e. 95%
Lost significant amount (8-9%) of vitamins, proteins and minerals during milling process where embryo and aleurone layer are removed
Less amount of lysine and threonine but higher content of methionine and tryptophan in rice
Content amylose and amylopectins that make hard quality to rice during cooking (Basmati rice = < 17% amylose)

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By product of rice used in va...