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experimental group A group of participants in a research study who experience some special treatment or condition (the independent variable). experiment A research method in which the researcher tries to determine the cause-and-effect relationships between two variables by manipulating one (called the independent variable) and then observing and recording the resulting changes in the other (called the dependent variable) ethnic group People whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion. empirical Based on observation, experience, or experiment; not theoretical ecological-systems approach The view that in the study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life dynamic-systems approach A vi ew of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of his or her environment, including the family and society. discontinuity Signifies developments that appear quite different from those that came before. A person, or a researcher, might believe that "everything changed" when school started or when puberty began, for instance. difference-equals-deficit error The mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) The American Psychiatric Association's official guide to the diagnosis (not treatment) of mental disorders. (IVTR means "fourth edition, text revision.") dependent variable In an experiment, the variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds. In other words, the dependent variable depends on the independent variable cross-sequential research A hybrid research method in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages (a cross-sectional approach) and then follow those groups over the years (a longitudinal approach). (Also called cohort-sequential research or timesequential research.) cross-sectional research A research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics. critical period A time when a particular type of developmental growth (in body or behavior) must happen. If the critical period passes without that growth, the person will never grow in that particular way. correlation A number indicating the degree of relationship between two variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will (or will not) occur when the other variable does (or does not). A correlation is not an indication that one variable causes the other, only that the two variables are related continuity Signifies developments over time that appear to persist, unchanging, from one age to the next. Parents might recognize the same personality traits in their grown children that they saw in them as infants. comparison group/control group A group of participants in a research study who are similar to the experimental group in all relevant ways but who do not experience the experimental condition (the independent variable) cohort A group of people who were born at about the same time and thus move through life together, experiencing the same historical events and cultural shifts at about the same age code of ethics A set of moral principles that members of a profession or group are expected to follow case study A research method in which one individual is studied intensively. survey A research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other means. socioeconomic status (SES) A person's position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, place of residence, and other factors. social construction An idea that is built on shared perceptions, not on objective reality. Many age-related terms, such as childhood, adolescence, yuppie, and senior citizen, are social constructions. sensitive period A time when a certain type of development is most likely to happen and happens most easily. If that development does not occur during that sensitive period, it could still occur later. For example, early childhood is considered a sensitive period for language learning. scientific observation A method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants' behavior in a systematic and objective manner, in a natural setting, in a laboratory, or in searches of archival data. scientific method A way to answer questions that requires empirical research and data-based conclusions. science of human development The science that seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time. replication The repetition of a study, using different participants. race A group of people who are regarded by themselves or by others as distinct from other groups on the basis of physical appearance. qualitative research Research that considers qualities instead of quantities. Descriptions of particular conditions and participants' expressed ideas are often part of qualitative studies. quantitative research Research that provides data that can be expressed with numbers, such as ranks or scales. plasticity The idea that abilities, personality, and other human traits can change over time. Plasticity is particularly evident during childhood, but even older adults are not always "set in their ways." nurture A general term for all the environmental influences that affect development after an individual is conceived. nature A general term for the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception. mirror neurons Brain cells that respond to actions performed by someone else in the same way they would if the observer had done that action. longitudinal research A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed. independent variable In an experiment, the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable. (Also called the experimental variable.) hypothesis A specific prediction that is stated in such a way that it can be tested and either confirmed or refuted. statistical significance A mathematical measure of the likelihood that a particular research result occurred by chance. control group Research subjects that are comparable to those in the experimental group in every relevant dimension except that they do not experience the special condition or treatment that is the key variable of the experiment. blind The condition of data gatherers (and sometimes participants as well) who are deliberately kept ignorant of the purpose of the research so that they cannot unintentionally bias the results. representative sample A group of research participants who reflect the relevant characteristics of the larger population whose attributes are under study. sample size The number of individuals who are being studied in a singlr sample in a research project. sample A group of individuals drawn from a specified population. A sample might be the low-birthweight babies born in four particular hospitals that are representative of all hospitals. population The entire group of individuals who are of particular concern in a scientific study, variable Any characteristic, or action that can take on different values with in a group of individuals or a single individual. Freud 3 stages of development. Oral, Anal, phallic in early childhood. Erikson Follower of Freud. Proposed 8 developmental stages, each characterized by a developmental crisis. Developmental theory systemic statement of principals and generalizations that provides cohort framework for studying development Grand Theories compressive, traditional theories that are widely applied. Psychoanalytic Theory Interprets human development in terms of motives. Human development that holds irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often during childhood, underlie human behavior. Freud and Erikson Cognitive Theory Focuses on the structure and development of thought processes, which shape perceptions, attitudes, and actions Piagets Sociocultural Theory Seeks to explain growth of individual knowledge, development, and competencies in terms of guidance, support, and structure supplied by the society. Vygotsky Epigenetic Theory Emphasizes the interaction between genes and the environment. The Newest developmental theory Evolutionary Theory Darwins Ideas. Controversial in Psychological Circles. Humans are more alike than different. Development influenced by drives to survive and reproduce. Jean Piaget 4 stages: Sensorimotor, Pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational. Absent grief Situation in which overly private people cut themselves off from the community and customs that allow and expect grief; can lead to social isolation. Active Euthanasia Situation in which someone takes action to bring about another person's death, with the intention of ending that person's suffering. Legal under some circumstances in the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Switzerland

Complicated Grief Absent and disenfranchised grief Disenfranchised grief Situation in which certain people, although they are bereaved, are prevented from mourning publicly by cultural customs or social restrictions. Double effect An ethical situation in which an action (such as administering opiates) has both a positive effect (relieving a terminally ill person's pain) and a negative effect (hastening death by suppressing respiration). Health care proxy Person chosen by another person to make medical decisions if the second person becomes unable to do so. Hospice A facility designed to care for the special needs of the dying. Each patient's autonomy and decisions are respected. Family members and friends are counseled before the death, shown how to provide care, and helped after the death. Incomplete grief Situation in which circumstances, such as a police investigation or an autopsy, interfere with the process of grieving. Living will Document that indicates what kinds of medical intervention an individual wants or does not want if he or she becomes incapable of expressing those wishes. Mourning Ceremonies and behaviors that a religion or culture prescribes for people to employ in expressing their bereavement after a death blastocyst The inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period. These cells later develop into the embryo. doula A caregiver who provides continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for the mother before, during, and after childbirth. natural childbirth This method attempts to reduce the mother's pain by decreasing her fear through education about childbirth and relaxation techniques during delivery teratogen From the Greek word tera, meaning "monster." Any agent that causes a birth defect. The field of study that investigates the causes of birth defects is called teratology. preterm infants Those born before the completion of 37 weeks of gestation (the time between fertilization and birth). kangaroo care Treatment for preterm infants that involves skin-to-skin contact. Low Birthweight (LBW) A body weight at birth of less than 51/2 pounds (2,500 grams). postpartum depression Characteristic of women who have such strong feelings of sadness, anxiety, or despair that they have trouble coping with daily tasks in the postpartum period. fetal period Lasting about seven months, the prenatal period between two months after conception and birth in typical pregnancies. embryonic period The period of prenatal development that occurs two to eight weeks after conception. During the embryonic period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells form, and organs appear. chromosomes The building blocks of cells and regulators that direct the body's process are called: GAMETES Human reproductive cells are called: Humans have ___23__ pairs of chromosomes. Emily, who has brown eyes, has one dominant gene and one recessive gene. When we describe her actual genetic makeup, we are describing her: GENOTYPE Humans have _21667___ genes. phenotype The way an individual's genotype is expressed in observed and measurable characteristics zygote A single cell formed through fertilization. genotype A person's genetic heritage; the actual genetic material. fertilization Stage in reproduction whereby an egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell, called a zygote. Germinal Period prenatal development that takes place in the first 2 weeks after conception, the creation of the zygote, continued cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall Embryonic Period prenatal development that occurs 2-8 weeks after conception, embryonic period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, supports system for the cells form, organs appear Fetal Period prenatal period of development that begins two months after conception and lasts for seven months, on the average Postpartum Period the period after childbirth when the mother adjusts, both physically and psychologically, to the process of childbirth. This period lasts for about 6 weeks or until her body has completed its adjustment and returned to a near prepregnan Down Syndrome a chromosomally transmitted form of mental retardation, caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21. Turner Syndrome a chromosome disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX 25-30%___ of pregnancies achieved by fertility treatments result in multiple births. twin study A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins Gamete A reproductive cell; that is, a sperm or an ovum that can produce a new individual if it combines with a gamete from the other sex to form a zygote. Chromosome One of the 46 molecules of DNA (in 23 pairs) that each cell of the human body contains and that, together, contain all the genes. Other species have more of fewer chromosomes. Monozygotic Twins Twins who originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development. (Also called "identical twins.") Dizygotic Twins Twins who are formed when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time. (Also called "fraternal twins.") Dominant-Recessive The interaction of a pair of alleles in such a way that the phenotype reveals the influence of one allele (the dominant gene) more than that of the other (the recessive gene.) Fetus The name for a developing human organism from the start of the ninth week after conception until birth. Age of Viability The age (about 22 weeks after conception) at which a fetus may survive outside the mother's uterus if specialized medical care is available. Apgar Scale A quick assessment of a newborn's body functioning. The baby's heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, color, and reflexes are given a score of 0, 1, or 2 twice-at one minute and five minutes after birth- and each time the total of all five scores is compared w Cesarean Section A surgical birth, in which incisions through the mother's abdomen and uterus allow the fetus to be removed quickly, instead of being delivered through the vagina. Very Low Birthweight (VLBW) A body weight at birth of less than 3 pounds, 5 ounces (1,500 grams). Extremely Low Birthweight (ELBW) A body weight at birth of less then 2 pounds, 3 ounces (1,000 grams). Preterm Birth A birth that occurs 3 or more weeks before the full 38 weeks of the typical pregnancy have elapsed- that is, at 35 or fewer weeks after conception. Threshold Effect A situation in which a certain teratogen is relatively harmless in small doses but becomes harmful once exposure reaches a certain level (the threshold). Turner Syndrome Only one X. Usually short. Female Organs are under developed and cannot conceive children. Small for Gestational Age (SGA) Having a body weight at birth that is significantly lower than expected, given the time since conception. For example, a 5-pound (2,265-gram) newborn is considered SGA if born on time but no SGA if born two months early. (Also called "small-for dates.") stem cells, which could develop into any body part. But then a third process, differentiation, is added to duplication and division human genome Genetic diversity not only distinguishes each person (you can immediately spot a close friend in a crowd) but also teaches us to appreciate human differences. preterm usually (though not always) weighs less than 2,500 grams (5½ pounds). Babies born before 32 weeks are always low birthweight Allele Any of the possible forms in which a gene for a particular trait can occur. Five Characteristics of Development 1. multidirectional 2.multidisciplinary 3.muticontextual 4.multicultural 5.plasticity Structuralism early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind Functionalism early school of thought promoted by James and influenced Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish Behaviorism the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2) Humanistic psychology historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people cognitive neuroscience the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language) Psychology the science of behavior and mental processes Nature-nurture issue the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's psychological science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of this Natural selection the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations Levels of analysis the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon Biopsychosocial approach an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis Basic research pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base Applied research scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Positive psychology the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive Hindsight bias the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it Critical thinking thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assess conclusions Theory an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors of events Hypothesis a testable prediction, often implied by a theory Operational definition a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables Replication repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances Case study an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles Naturalistic observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation Survey a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes of behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group Population all those ina group being studied, from which samples may be drawn Random sample a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion Correlation a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either facto...