Chapter 1 and 2 Notes - Neal PDF

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PSY2012 General Psychology Notes

Chapter 1

Psychology- The scientific study of mental processes and behavior Goals of psychology: 1. To describe behavior 2. To explain behavior 3. To predict behavior 4. To control or change behavior

Structuralism (Wundt and Titchener) -Our consciousness can be broken down into its essential elements -Uses introspection (the personal observation of our own thoughts, sensations, feelings)

Functionalism (William James) -Our consciousness serves an adaptive purpose by helping us survive

Psychodynamic Theory (Sigmund Freud) -Our behavior is influenced by unconscious thoughts, impulses, and desires -Many of these drives are destructive or sexual in nature

Behaviorism (John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner) -Behavior is learned, observable, and measurable -Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted the “Little Albert” experiment by conditioning a baby to fear a rat -Skinner took Watson’s behaviorism and added in the idea of observing the consequences of a behavior

Humanistic Psychology (Maslow and Rogers) -We have free will to live more creative, meaningful, satisfying lives

Gestalt Viewpoint (Wertheimer) -Studies the components versus the whole of consciousness (“Gestalt” is “whole” in German)

Cognitive Psychology (Neisser) -How our brain processes info influences how we behave

Famous psychologists in America: -F. Sumner: First African American with doctorate in psychology, examined the psychology behind racism -M. Calkins: Denied Ph.D., later elected the first woman president of the APA -M. Washburn: First woman to earn a doctorate in psychology

Eclectic (integrated) approach combines several perspectives, providing a more complete picture of behavior.

Subfields that psychologists choose: Clinical (most popular), Counseling, Social, Biological, Neuroscience, Industrial/organizational, Developmental, Educational, and Cognitive Where do psychologists work: Human service sector (most popular), College and universities, Business/government/other, and Other educational institutions

To be an experiment, variables in the study are controlled or manipulated, and participants are randomly assigned to the conditions of the study. Quasi-experiments are not true experiments because participants are not randomly assigned to the different conditions. Prediction- an expected outcome of how variables will relate Hypothesis- an educated guess Predictive hypothesis- an educated guess about the relationships among variables Causal hypothesis- an educated guess about how one variable will influence another variable Theory- sets of facts and relationships between facts that can explain or predict related phenomena

Scientific method: 1. Observe behavior 2. Formulate research question 3. Generate testable hypothesis 4. Collect and analyze data 5. Draw conclusions and use them to create or refine theory

An example of naturalistic observation is how Jane Goodall observed complex chimpanzee societies.

Studying the effects of time: Cross-sectional design- different age groups Longitudinal design- same group studied over time Mixed longitudinal design- different groups studied over time

Behavioral statistics Reliability- consistency Validity- accuracy

Descriptive statistics find meaningful patterns and summaries in large sets of data using Measures of Central Tendency (mean, median, and mode).

Standard deviations: 1 SD = 68% 2 SD = 95% 3 SD = 99% Inferential statistics reach conclusion about data. Meta-analysis is a statistical analysis of many prior experiments.

Institutional Review Board (IRB) is a committee that reviews research proposals to ensure that ethical standards have been met.

Prisoners, soldiers, and mental patients were deliberately exposed to syphilis and gonorrhea to test effectiveness of penicillin in the Tuskegee Syphilis experiments.

APA Style: Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article: Subtitle of article. Title of Periodical or Journal, Vol #, pages.

Chapter 2 Neuroscience- The study of how the brain and nervous system affect mental processes and behavior. Neurons- Cells that transmit info. Glia cells- Brain cells that provide support functions for neurons and help form myelin. Myelin- A fatty, waxy substance that insulates portions of neurons.

Dendrites receive incoming signals from other neurons. Axons carry action potentials that convey info from the cell body to the synapse. They can vary from micrometers to a meter in length. Axon bulbs have small storage pouches called vesicles that hold neurotransmitters. Myelin sheath- Discontinuous segments covering the outside of some axons. Synapse- Connection formed between neurons when axon bulbs are close to dendrites.

Ions- Charged particles that produce electro-chemical energy to send neural signals. Resting potential- Potential difference in a neuron when resting (-70mv). Threshold of excitation- Potential difference when the neuron fires an action potential (-55mv). Action potential- Neural impulse fired at -55mv. Refractory period- After returning to resting potential, the neuron is temporarily unable to fire another action potential.

When the action potential reaches the axon bulb of the presynaptic neuron, it causes the release of neurotransmitters into the fluid-filled synapse. The neurotransmitters fit into their own uniquely shaped receptor site, triggering an electrical charge in the postsynaptic neuron. Neurotransmitters can either cause excitation or inhibition (the likeliness of firing an action potential).

Reuptake- recycling neurotransmitters back into the presynaptic neuron

Nervous system: 1. Central Nervous System (CNS) a. Brain and spinal chord 2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) a. Autonomic nervous system (ANS)- governs involuntary bodily functions i. Sympathetic division- most active during times of normal functioning ii. Parasympathetic division- most active during times of danger or stress b. Somatic nervous system- governs sensory and voluntary motor action

Brain ventricles Third ventricle- cushions the brain Lateral ventricle- feeds brain and removes waste Fourth ventricle- manages blood flow between the brain and spinal chord

Hindbrain- primitive part of the brain 

Medulla- manages heart rate, blood pressure, breathing

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Pons- sleep, arousal, facial expression

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Cerebellum- balance and motor coordination

Midbrain- sensory reflexes, movement, and pain; connects hindbrain with forebrain 

Reticular formation- mood, arousal, sleep, consciousness

Forebrain- higher-order mental processes 

Limbic system- where the subcortical structures meet the cerebral cortex; emotions o Subcortical structures 

Hypothalamus- motivation, homeostasis

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Hippocampus- storage of long term memory, exhibits neuroplasticity (the ability to rewire nervous system structures)

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Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)- decision making, emotions, anticipation of reward, empathy

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Posterior cingulate cortex (PCC)- memory, visual processing

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Thalamus- “gateway cortex,” sensory information goes here first

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Basal ganglia- voluntary movement

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Amygdala- identify/remember/respond to fear or aggression

Cerebral cortex- the thin, wrinkled outer covering that processes thinking 

Corpus callosum- connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain

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Association cortex- areas of the cortex involved in the association or integration of information from the motor-sensory areas of the cortex

Frontal lobe- Thinking, planning, decision making, language, and motor movement 

Motor cortex

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Primary cortex

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Prefrontal cortex

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Orbitofrontal cortex o Broca’s area

Parietal lobe- Touch and certain cognitive processes o Primary somatosensory cortex Temporal lobe- Auditory processing and language o Primary auditory cortex o Wernicke’s area Occipital lobe- Visual processing o Primary visual cortex

Electroencephalogram (EEG)- electrodes (to track electrical activity) Positron emission tomography (PET)- radioactively tagged glucose or oxygen (to track chemical activity) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)- magnets (to track the flow of oxygen)

Endocrine gland Pineal gland Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Adrenal glands

Function Regulates body rhythms, sleep cycles Influences growth and lactation, regulates other glands Regulates metabolism Arouses the body, adjusts to stress, regulates salt

Pancreas

balances, provides sexual hormones Regulates blood sugar and hunger

Hormone Endorphins Melatonin Epinephrine Norepinephrine Thyroid hormones

Function Manage pain Regulates sleep Arouses body, associated with fear Arouses body, associated with anger Regulates metabolism...