Chapter 1 Facilitating Learning phill di lsbdi PDF

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MODULE:MODULE DESCRIPTION: Chapter 1 “Understanding Learning and KnowledgeAcquisition”COURSE CODE:COURSE NAME: Facilitating LearningReference Material:GINNY A. EMERENCIANAMessenger Account: GINNY EMERENCIANAGuijalo Elementary SchoolIli-Centro, Caramoan, Camarines SurA. Learning Targets:At the end of...

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MODULE: #1 MODULE DESCRIPTION: Chapter 1 “Understanding Learning and Knowledge Acquisition” COURSE CODE: COURSE NAME: Facilitating Learning Reference Material:

GINNY A. EMERENCIANA Messenger Account: GINNY EMERENCIANA Guijalo Elementary School Ili-Centro, Caramoan, Camarines Sur

A.

Learning Targets: At the end of the unit, the pre-service teacher can: a. Characterize the learning process b. Discuss different theories of learning from different perspectives c. Demonstrate skills in applying the theories of learning

B. Warm Up

C. Overview Educators have realized that for students to be successful in the 21 century they need to be lifelong learners. Helping them to develop the skills necessary to become lifelong learners requires a different approach to teaching and learning. Likewise, to create an environment in which students will learn is a great task for teachers. But what does it mean to lean something? Learning to some is a biological response to external stimuli. To others, learning means constructing a personal interpretation of reality. It is common to think of learning as something that takes place is school, but much of human learning occurs outside the classroom, and people continue to learn throughout their lives. Because learning continues throughout our lives and affects almost everything we do, the study of leaning is important in many different fields. An understanding of the nature of learning and the conditions under which learning takes place effectively contribute to learning success on the part of the learners. st

D. Lesson Proper NATURE OF LEARNING Many educators have attempted to define learning. Some of these definitions are too complicated to have meaning. Others are not broad enough in their scope. One writer defines learning as an intelligent adaptation to changing conditions. Another authority defines learning as the process of acquiring knowledge. Perhaps the best definition, especially where educators are concerned, is the definition which puts emphasis on the student's ability to perform as the result of learning.

Ornstein (1990), defines learning "as a reflective process whereby the learner either develops new insights and understanding or changes and restructures his or his mental processes." Lardizabal (1991) opines that "learning is an integrated, ongoing process occurring within the individual, enabling him to meet specific aims, fulfill his needs and interests, and cope with the learning process." This process involves unfreezing, problem diagnosis, goal setting, new behavior, and refreezing. Slavin (1995) defines learning as a change in an individual caused by experience. Changes caused by development (such as growing taller) are not instances of learning. Neither are characteristics of individuals that are present at birth (such as reflexes and responses to hunger and pain). Calderon (1998) defines learning as the acquisition through maturation and experience of new and more knowledge, skills, and attitudes that will enable the learner to make better and more adequate reactions, responses, and adjustments to new situations. Learning is also a process by which behavior is either modified or changed through experience or training. In this sense, learning refers not only to an outcome that is manifestly observable (e.g., learning to ride a bike, to multiply fractions, to recite a poem), but also to attitudes, feelings and intellectual processes that may not be obvious. Although there are a number of definitions of learning, most psychologists and educators tend to agree that learning is a process by which behavior is either modified or changed through experience or training. In this sense, learning refers not only to an outcome that is manifestly observable (e.g., learning to swim, to add fractions, or to write a sentence), but also to attitudes, feelings, and intellectual processes that may not be so obvious. Summarily, all definitions of learning point to three important concepts: change, behavior, and experience. VIEWS ON HOW LEARNING OCCURS Learning theories generally fall into two major groups: behavioristic theories and cognitive theories. Theorists from both sides agree that learning is a result of experience, but they disagree on (1) how learning occurs, and (2) how to best establish the conditions that maximize learning in the first place. The behaviorist theories contend that "habits” or specific ways of thinking or behaving are learned while cognitive theories state that

"cognitive structures" or more general ways of thinking are learned. For example, when going home from school, we probably activate specific ways of thinking and behaving so as to get home as quickly as possible. The behaviorist would say that our need for rest (stimulus) caused us to go home (response) in order that we might be able to sleep (reinforcement). What we did then was to begin a chain of learned responses triggered by stimulus (rest). However, from a cognitive theorist's point of view, we find our way home because what is learned are facts that enable us to deduce the best and quickest route to get there. Thus, if we can locate our house from one starting point, we can find it from another because we know where the house is. We have, in other words, developed a cognitive structure in our minds that allows us to formulate general working principles, from which more specific deductive applications can be made. THEORIES OF LEARNING Theories of learning are sets of conjectures and hypotheses that explain the process of learning or how learning takes place. There are several learning theories; behavioral, cognitive, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist theories. Although these theories were developed in western countries, applications to education in the context of Filipino teachers and learners, inside and outside the classroom, will be discussed to facilitate learning. No single learning theory is comprehensive enough to explain all we used to know about how learning and why learning occurs. Cognitive learning theories help us understand the need for developing a broad cognitive structure in coping with specific learning tasks. Behavioral learning theories help us to explain much of human behavior, particularly observable behavior.

A. BEHAVIORAL THEORIES OF LEARNING Two of the most important early researchers were Ivan Pavlov and Edward Thorndike. Among later researchers, B.F. Skinner was important for his studies of the relationship between behavior and consequences. 1. Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Theory In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Pavlov and his colleagues studied the digestive process in dogs. During the research, the scientists noticed changes in the timing and rate of salivation of these animals. Pavlov observed that if meat powder was placed in or near the mouth of a hungry dog, the dog would salivate. Because the meat powder provoked this response automatically without any prior training or conditioning, the meat powder is referred to as an unconditioned stimulus. Similarly, because salivation occurred automatically in the

presence of meat, also without the need for any training or experience, this response of salivating is referred to as an unconditioned response. Pavlov's experiments showed that if a previously neutral stimulus (ringing of the bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and gains the power to prompt a response similar to that produced by the unconditioned stimulus. In other words, after the bell and the meat are presented together, the ringing of the bell alone causes the dog to salivate. This process is called classical conditioning (Slavin et al, 1995). As a result of Pavlov's experiment, he discovered several principles of classical conditioning as: 

Stimulus generalization refers to the process by which the conditioned response transfers to other stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. For example, having learned that the color red means "stop", we tend to stop at red lights, signs, and flashing red bulbs. Generalization appears to explain the transfer of a response to a situation other than that in which the original learning occurred. A child who develops fear of the dentist in th clinic or hospital may transfer that fear to anybody who is wearing white like the doctor, nurse, etc. A first grade youngster terrified by a stern teacher may transfer that fear or anxiety to anything about schools: teachers, books, the school building itself(Elliott et al, 1996).



Discrimination refers to the process by which we learn not to respond to similar stimuli in an identical manner. We respond differently to stimuli because of our previous experiences in which certain of our responses were successful in the presence of certain stimuli. In the classroom, children learning to read might have serious difficulties if they can not discriminate circles from curved lines or horizontal from vertical lines. In similar manner, they might not be able to discriminate the letters v from u or b from d. If this goes on consistently, this could lead to reading problems.



Extinction refers to the process by which conditioned responses are lost. Pavlov found that by the ringing of the bell alone (that is with no food) he could eliminate conditioned response. For example, when an older brother or sister warns a child of a very strict teacher who will be the child's teacher next year the child associates anxiety with that teacher. After several weeks of the child with a very strict teacher, and the child discovers that the teacher is a kind teacher, the child's anxiety is extinguished (Elliott et al, 1996).

2. Thorndike's S-R Theory Edward Thorndike's work on animal behavior and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay the foundation for modern educational psychology Thorndike was one of the first pioneers of active learning, a theory that proposes letting children learn themselves, rather than receiving instruction from teachers. Thorndike's early studies with animal behavior led him to declare his Law of Effect which states that if an act is followed by a satisfying change in the environment, the likelihood that the act will be repeated in similar situations increases. According to Thorndike, pupils learn more effectively and easily, and retain that learning longer, if it has pleasant consequences. Thus rewards, successes, or positive reinforcement further learning, while punishment, failure, or negative experiences hinder it. Two other laws of learning formulated by Thorndike were the laws of readiness and exercise. The law of readiness states that when an organism, both human and animal, is ready to form connections to do so is satisfying and not to do so is annoying. Thorndike believed that readiness is an important condition of learning, because satisfaction or frustration depends on an individual's state of readiness, e.g., a child forced to read before he is ready may acquire skills but may not necessarily develop the desire to read. The law of exercise states that any connection is strengthened in proportion to the number of times it occurs and in proportion to the average vigor and duration of the connection. Edward Thorndike opined that practice alone was not enough for improvement. The connection is to be strengthened through reinforcement, thus the law of effect must also operate. When the student’s practice, they should be aware of the consequences of what they are doing. Otherwise, practice becomes ineffective or may even be harmful. 3. BE Skinner Operant Conditioning Theory Like Thorndike's Skinner's work focused on the relation between behavior and its consequences. For example, if an individual's behavior is immediately followed by pleasurable consequences, the individual will engage in that behavior more

frequently. The use of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to change behavior is often referred to as operant conditioning (Microsoft Encarta Reference Library, 2004) The operant conditioning theory was based on Skinner's experiment with a hungry rat that was placed in a box. Upon its accidental pressing of a lever in the box, it was rewarded with a food pellet which served as reinforcement to the reinforcing behavior. Reinforced thus, the rat kept on pressing that bar, this time no longer accidentally but intentionally. Skinner has shown that basic to operant conditioning is the use of reinforcement. Reinforcement is defined as any behavioral consequence that strengthens (that is, increases the frequency of) a behavior. The reinforcement increases the likelihood of the recurrence of a particular type of response. By reinforcement, Skinner refers to any event that increases the probability that a particular response will increase in frequency Responses may be reinforced by the presentation (positive) or removal (negative) of particular consequences. Thus reinforcement may be positive or negative. Positive and Negative Reinforcers Positive reinforcers are events that are presented after a response has been performed and that increase the behavior or activity they follow. Examples of positive reinforcers are things given to students such as praise, grades, and stars. Negative reinforcers are escapes from unpleasant situations or ways of preventing something unpleasant from occurring. For example, a parent might release a student from washing the dishes if the student completes his or her homework. If washing the dishes is seen as an unpleasant task, release from it will be reinforcing. As Skinner continued to study behavior, he examined reinforcers more carefully and categorized them as: Primary reinforcers are those that satisfy basic human needs. Some examples are food, water, security, warmth, and sex. Secondary reinforcers are those that acquire reinforcing power because they have been associated with primary reinforcers. For example, money has no value to a young child until the child learns that money can be used to buy things that are themselves called primary or secondary reinforcers. Grades have little value to students unless their parents notice and value good grades, and parents' praise is of value because it is associated with love,

warmth, security and other reinforcers. Money and grades are examples of secondary reinforcers because thy have no value in themselves but have been associated with primary reinforcers or with other well-established secondary reinforcers (Slavin,1995). 4. Social Learning Theory The social learning theory is a major outgrowth of the behavioral learning theory tradition. Developed by Albert Bandura, the social learning theory accepts most of the principles of behavioral theories but focuses to a much greater degree on the effects of cues on behavior and on internal mental processes, emphasizing the effects of thought on action and action on thought. Bandura felt that much of human learning is not shaped by its consequences but is more efficiently learned directly from a model. Bandura's analysis of observational learning involves four phases: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivational processes (Slavin et al, 1995). Attention. An observer must attend to and recognize the distinctive features of the model's response because mere exposure to a model does not ensure acquisition of behavior. Students are attracted to the compelling features of desirable models by imitating their hairstyles, mannerisms and even the way they dress, walk and talk. Retention. Reproduction of the desired behavior implies that a student symbolically retains the observed behavior. This means that as students observe teachers or other people, they also code or form some type of image or mental schema that corresponds to what they are actually doing. This aids retention. Motor reproduction processes. Bandura believes that symbolic coding produces internal models of the environment that guide the observer's future behavior. This means that after observation and after urging the students to form an image of the task's solution they should be asked to demonstrate the solution as soon as possible. Motivational processes. Although an observer acquires and retains the ability to perform modeled behavior, there will be no overt performance unless conditions are favorable. Modeled Behavior ATTENTION Experience Personality Characteristics Relationship with model Situational Variables

Rehearsal Organization Recall Other Cognitive skills REPRODUCTION Cognitive reproduction Concept matching Use of feedback MOTIVATION External incentives Vicarious incentives Self-evaluation & Incentives Internalized standards Social Comparison

Matching Behavior

Although most observational learning is motivated by an expectation that correctly imitating the model will lead to reinforcement, it is also important to note that people learn by seeing others reinf Figure 1. Bandura’s Model of Observational s. This is L i why magazine distributors always include happy winners in their advertisements to induce people to enter promotional contests. Classroom teachers use the principle of vicarious learning all the time. When the student is fooling around, teachers often single out others who are working well and reinforce them for doing a good job. The misbehaving student sees that working is reinforced and gets back to work. B. COGNITIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING Cognitive theories are concerned with the things that happen inside our heads as we learn. They take the perspective that students actively process information and learning takes place through the efforts of the student as they organize, store and then find relationships between information, linking new to old knowledge,

schema and scripts. The information is processed.

cognitive

approach

emphasizes

how

The three researchers Ausubel, Bruner, Gagne and Piaget take different perspectives but each presents idea that add to the discussion on how people learn. 1. Bruner's Cognitive Learning Theory The ideas of Bruner who advocated discovery learning, probably have had greater acceptance, at least in schools, than those of Ausubel and Gagne. Bruner's theory is based upon the study of cognition. A major theme in this theory is that "learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge". Cognitiv structures are used to provide meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to go beyond the information given. According to Bruner, the instructor should try and encourage the students to construct hypotheses, make decisions, and discover principles by themselves (Kearsley 1994b). The instructor's task is to "translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding" and organize it in a spiral manner "so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned." The three stages in Bruner's theory of cognitive development are; Enactive level where learning manipulation of objects and materials.

takes

place

via

direct

Iconic level where objects are represented by visual images and are recognized for what they represent. Symbolic level which describes the capacity of learners to think in abstract terms, Bruner's underlying principle for teaching and learning is that a combination of concrete, pictorial then symbolic activities will lead to more effective learning The progression is: start with a concrete experience, then move to pictures, and finally use symbolic representation. Bruner's principle and the procedure is suggested in teaching numeracy.

Another aspect of Bruner's theory, which has been included in some teachers' classrooms, is discovery learning. Discovery learning is an instructional approach that provides students with data and then requires them to process this information into meaningful abstractions. In Bruner's and Dewey's view, discovery learning encourages students to think for them...