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chapter 1 with dr. Rebecca Martin online course...

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Chapter 1: Introduction Saturday, January 18, 2020

5:11 PM

• Aristotle argued that the most important aspect of adolescenc choose and that self-determination is the hallmark of maturity ○ Not unlike some contemporary views that see independen career choice as key themes of adolescence ○ Also recognized adolescents' ecogentrism • Children and adolescents were viewed as mini adults in the m subjected to harsh discipline ○ Jean-jacques rousseau restored the belief that adolescen adulthood § Thought reasoning developed in adolescence and tha encouraged § Concluded that development has distinct phases • End of 19th century and early 20th century saw the invention adolescence • G. Stanley Hall pioneered the scientific study of adolescence ○ Proposed that development is controlled primarily by biolo ○ Storm-and-stress view is Hall's concept that adolescence charged with conflict and mood swings • Anthropologist Margaret Mead studied adolescenmts on the S Samoa and concluded that the basic nature of adolescence is Hall had envisioned, but rather sociocultural • Although adolescence has a biological base, it also has a soc ○ Sociohistorical conditions contributed to the emergence o adolescence ○ inventionist view: the view that adolescence is a sociohist Especially important in this view are the sociohistorical cir beginning of the 20th century, a time when legislation was ensured the dependency of youth and made their move in

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ensured the dependency of youth and made their move in sphere more manageable. § Said that adolescence is a sociohistorical creation Cohort efforts: characteristics related to a person's year of birt rather than his or her actual chronological age In recent years, generations have been given labels by popula ○ Millenials: applicable to the generation born after 1980 § Characterized by ethnic diversity and connection to te § Described as confident, self-expressive, liberal, upbe change Stereotype: a generalization that reflects our impressions and braod group of people. All stereotypes refer to an image of wh member of a specific group is like. Stereotyping adolescents is so widespread that adolescence r Adelson coined the term adolescent generalization gap ○ Adolescent generalization gap: Adelson's concept of gene made about adolescents based on information regarding highly visible group of adolescents Adults' perceptions of adolescents emerge from a combination experience and media portrayals, neither of which produces a how typical adolescents develop ○ Some of the readiness to assume the worst about adolesc the short memories of adults who often portray today's ad troubled, less respectful, more self-centered, more assert adventurous than they were Positive youth development (PYD) reflects the positive psycho ○ Emphasizes the strengths of youth and positive qualities a trajectories that are desired for youth ○ Five C's of PYD: § Competence □ Involves having a positive perception of one's ac specific areas-social, academic, physical, career § Confidence

o the economic era, or generation culture. hnology , and open to eliefs about a t the typical searcher Joseph alizations being limited, often of personal objective picture ents likely involves escents as more e, and more ogy approach nd develop;mental

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□ Characterized by positive relationships with othe peers, teachers, and community § Character □ Comprises respect for societal rules, an understa wrong, and integrity § Caring/compassion □ Encompasses showing emotional concern for oth those in distress Social policy: a national government's course of action design welfare of its citizens Development: the pattern of change that begins at conception through the life span. Most development involves growth, altho decay (as in death and dying). Human development is determined by biological, cognitive, an processes and is often described in terms of periods. Biological process: physical changes in the body ○ Genes inherited from parents, the development of the bra gains, advances in motor skills, and the hormonal change Cognitive processes involve changes in an individual's thinkin ○ Memorizing a poem, solving a math problem, envisioning Socioemotional processes involve changes in an individual's e personality, relationships with others, and social contexts ○ Talking back to parents, aggression towards peers, asser of social events, and gender-role orientation Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are intrica ○ Socioemotional processes shape cognitive processes, co advance or restrict socioemotional processes, and biolog influence cognitive processes. Developmental cognitive neuroscience explores links between cognitive processes, and the brain. Developmental social neuroscience examines connections be socioemotionak processes, development, and the brain.

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designed to influence the welfare of its citizens Development: the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life span. Most development involves growth, although it also includes decay (as in death and dying). Human development is determined by biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes and is often described in terms of periods. Biological process: physical changes in the body ○ Genes inherited from parents, the development of the brain, height and weight gains, advances in motor skills, and the hormonal changes of puberty Cognitive processes involve changes in an individual's thinking and intelligence ○ Memorizing a poem, solving a math problem, envisioning life as a movie star Socioemotional processes involve changes in an individual's emotions, personality, relationships with others, and social contexts ○ Talking back to parents, aggression towards peers, assertiveness, enjoyment of social events, and gender-role orientation Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are intricately interwoven ○ Socioemotional processes shape cognitive processes, cognitive processes advance or restrict socioemotional processes, and biological processes influence cognitive processes. Developmental cognitive neuroscience explores links between development, cognitive processes, and the brain. Developmental social neuroscience examines connections between socioemotionak processes

connections between socioemotionak processes, development, and the brain. • Childhood includes the prenatal period, infancy, early childhood, and middle and late childhood. ○ Prenatal period is the time from conception to birth § Time of tremendous growth from a single cell to an organism complete with a brain and behavioral capabilities ○ Infancy is the developmental period that extends from birth to 2 years § Time of extreme dependency of on adults § Many psychological activities such as language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination, social learning, and parent-child relationships begin ○ Early childhood is the developmental period that extends from the end of infancy to 5 years of age, also known as preschool years § Children learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves § They develop school readiness and spend many hours in play and with peers ○ Middle and late childhood is the developmental period that extends from 6-11 years § Elementary school years § Children master the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic, and are formally exposed to the larger world and its culture § Achievement becomes a central theme of child development and self-control increases • The combination of heredity, childhood experiences, and adolescent expriences determines the course of adolescent development Ad l i d ft iti b t hildh d d

• Adolescence: period of transition between childhood and adulthood that involves biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes ○ Key task is preparation for adulthood ○ Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes range from development of sexual functions to abstract thinking processes to independence • Early adolescence corresponds roughly to the middle school or junior high school years and includes most pubertal change • Late adolescence refers approximately to the latter half of the second decade of life ○ Career interests, dating, and identity exploration are often more pronounce in late adolescence than in early adolescence • Like childhood and adolescence, adulthood is not a homogeneous period of development ○ Described in three periods: § Early, middle, and late adulthood □ Early adulthood usually begins in the late teens or early twenties and lasts throughout the thirties ® Time of establishing personal and economic independence and engaging in career development □ Middle adulthood beings 35-45 and ends at 55-65 ® Time of increasing interest in transmitting values to the next generation, deeper reflection about the meaning of life, and enhanced concern aboutg a decline in physical functioning and health

□ Late adulthood lasts from 60/70 til death ® Time of adjustment to decreasing strength and health and to retirement and reduced income • Transition from childhood to adolescence involves a number of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes ○ Compared with children, adolescents process information more rapidly, can sustain their attention longer, and engage in more effective executive function, which includes monitoring and managing their cognitive resources, exercising cognitive control, and delaying gratification • Transition from adolescence to adulthood begins in biology and ends in culture ○ Referred to as emerging adulthood, which takes place 18-25 years ○ Five key features that characterize emerging adulthood: § Identity exploration § Instability § Self-focused § Feeling in-between § The age of possibilities, a time when individuals have a change to transform their lives □ Many emerging adults are optimistic about their future □ For emerging adults who have experienced difficult times while growing up, emerging adulthood presents a change to reorient their lives in a more positive direction • Three types of assets that are important in making a competent transition through adolescence and emerging

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competent transition through adolescence and emerging adulthood: ○ Intellectual development ○ Psychological/emotional development ○ Social development Resilience refers to adapting positively and achieving successful outcomes in the face of significant risks and adverse circumstances Nature-nurture issue involves the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture ○ Nature refers to an organism's biological influence, nurture to its environmental experience Continuity-discontinuity issue focuses on the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity) ○ In terms of continuity, a child's first word, while seemingly an abrupt, discontinuous event, is actually the result of weeks and months of growth and practice ○ In terms of discontinuity, each person is described as passing through a sequence of stages in which change is qualitatively, rather than quantitatively, different. Early-later experience issue which focuses on the degree to which early experiences or later experiences are the key determinants of development Psychoanalytic theories describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotions Freud's Theory is comprised of five stages of psychosexual development: ○ Oral § Birth to 1 1/2 years § Infant's pleasure centers on the mouth

○ Anal § 1 1/2-3 years § Child's pleasure focues on the anus ○ Phallic § 3-6 years § Child's pleasure focuses on the genitals ○ Latency § 6 years-puberty § Child represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual skills ○ Genital § Puberty onward § A time of sexual reawakening; source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family • Freud divided personality into three structures: ○ Id § Consists of instincts, which are an individual's reservoir of psychic energy § Totally unconscious, no contact with reality ○ Ego § Emerges as children experience the demands and constraints of reality § Makes rational decsisions □ Id and ego have no morality and do not take into account whether something is right or wrong ○ Superego § Moral branch of personality § Conscience • Freud believed that most of personality exists below our level of awareness. ○ The ego resolves conflict between its reality

demands, the id's wishes, and the superego's constraints through defense mechanisms § Repression is the most powerful and pervasive defense mechanism □ Pushes unacceptable id impulses out of wawareness and back into the unconscious mind □ Foundation on which all other defense mechanisms rest, since the goal of every defense mechanism is to repress, or to push threatening impulses out of awareness ○ Erik Erikson recognized Freud's contributions but argued that Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development § Said that we develop in psychosocial stages rather than psychosexual § According to erikson, primary motivation for human behavior is social and reflects the desire to affiliate with other people § Erikson believed that developmental change occurs throughout the lifespan □ Emphasized the importance of both early and later experiences • Erikson's theory consists of 8 stages of development in which a unique developmental task confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved at each stage. ○ These crises are not catastrophes but turning points marked by both increased vulnerability and enhanced potential. ○ The more successfully an individual resolves the crises, the healtheir development will be § Erikson's stages: □ Trust vs. mistrust

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® Infancy ® Trust sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live Autonomy vs. shame and doubt ® Late infancy and toddlerhood ® Infants begin to discover that their behavior is their own and start to assert their independence Initiative vs guilt ® Preschool years Industry vs. inferiority ® Elementary school years ® Children now need to direct their energy towards mastering knowledge and intellectual skills Identity vs. identity confusion ® Adolescence ® Individuals explore who they are, what they're all about, and where they're going in life ® If adolescents explore roles in a healthy manner and arrive at a positive path to follow in life, they achieve a positive idneitty; if not, identity confusion continues Intimacy vs. isolation ® Early adulthood ® Individuals face developmental task of forming intimate relationships Generativity vs. stagnation ® Middle adulthood

® Generativity is a primary concern for helping the younger generation to develop and lead useful lives ® The feeling of having done nothing to help the next generation is stagnation □ Integrity vs. despair ® Late adulthood ® Reflection on the past • Contributions of psychoanalytic theories include an emphasis on a developmental framework, family relationships, and unconscious aspects of the mind ○ Criticisms include a lack of scientific support, too much emphasis on sexual underpinnings, and an image of people that is too negative • Cognitive theories emphasize conscious thoughts ○ Piaget's cognitive developmental theory ○ Vygotsky's sociocultural cognitive theory ○ Information-processing theory • Piaget's theory is a theory stating that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development ○ Organization and adaptation underlie cognitive construction of the world ○ Each stage of piaget's theory Is age-related and consists of a distinct way of thinking, and a different way of understanding the world. § Sensorimotor stage □ Birth-2 years □ Infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions. An ifnant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward

the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage. § Preoperational stage □ 2-7 years □ The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images refelct increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action. § Concrete operational stage □ 7-11 years □ Child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets § Formal operational stage □ 11-adulthood □ Adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways • Vygotsky's theory is a sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development ○ Vygotsky stressed that cognitive development involves learning to use the inventions of society such as language, math, and memory strategies • Information-processing theory is a theory emphasizing that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this approach are the processes of memory and thinking. ○ Individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information, allowing them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills • Contributions of cognitive theories include a positive view of development and an emphasis on the active

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construction of understanding ○ Criticisms include skepticism about the pureness of piaget's stages and too little attention to individual variations Behaviorism holds that we can study scientifically only what we can directly observe and measure ○ Two versions of behaviorism: § Skinner's operant conditioning § Bandura's social cognitive theory According to skinner, operant conditioning is where the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior's occurrence ○ A behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur whereas a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus is less likely to recur § Rewards and punishment shape development § Key aspect of development is behavior, not thoughts and feelings Social cognitive theory: the view that behavior, environment, and person/cognition are the key factors in development ○ Bandura emphasizes that cognitive processes have important links with the environment and behavior § His early research program focused heavily on observational learning which is learning that occurs through observing what others do Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory: a theory focusing on the influence of five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem ○ Microsystem: setting in which the adolescent lives § Contexts include family, peers, school, and neighborhood...