Chapter 11 Personality PDF

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Chapter 11 Personality The psychodynamic perspective 

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Sigmund freud: psychoanalytic theory o Psychoanalytic Theory  levels of consciousness  structure of personality  defense mechanisms  stages of psychosexual development o Human personality and behavior are driven by unconscious forces and conflicts  Aggressive Impulses  Sexual Impulses Levels of consciousness o Conscious- to Freud, the part of the mind corresponding to the state of parent awareness o Preconscious- To Freud, the part of the mind whose contents can be brought into awareness though focused attention o Unconscious- hidden mental contents that lie beyond the reach of conscious awareness; Holds troubling or unacceptable ideas, urges, memories, and impulses o The structure of personality  Id- Freud’s term for the psychic structure existing in the unconscious that contains our baser animal drives and instinctual impulses  Ego- Freud’s term for the psychic structure that attempts to balance the instinctual demands of the id with social realities and expectations.  Superego- Freud’s term for the psychic structure that corresponds to an internal moral guardian or conscience.  Pleasure Principle- in Freudian theory, a governing principle of the id that is based on demand for instant gratification without regard to social rules or customs  Reality principle- in Freudian Theory, the governing principle of the Ego that takes into account what if practical and acceptable in satisfying basic needs. o Defense mechanisms- In Freudian theory, the reality-distorting strategies of the ego to prevent awareness of anxiety-evoking or troubling ideas or impulses.  Repression- or motivated forgetting—involves banishment to the unconscious of unacceptable wishes, fantasies, urges, and impulses  Denial- In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the failure to recognize a threatening impulse or urge.  reaction formation- In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving behavior that stands in opposition to one’s true motives and desires so as to prevent conscious awareness of them.  Rationalization- In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the use of self-justification to explain away unacceptable behavior, impulses, or ideas.  Projection- in Freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the projection of one’s own unacceptable impulses, wishes, or urges onto another person.

Sublimation- In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the channeling of unacceptable impulses into socially sanctioned behaviors or interests.  Regression- In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism in which an individual, usually under high levels of stress, reverts to a behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development.  Displacement- In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism in which an unacceptable sexual or aggressive impulse is transferred to an object or person that is safer or less threatening than the original object of the impulse. o Stages of psychosexual development  erogenous zones- Parts of the body that are especially sensitive to sexual or pleasurable stimulation.  Fixations- Constellations of personality traits characteristic of a particular stage of psychosexual development, resulting from either excessive or inadequate gratification at that stage.  Oral stage- In Freudian theory, the first stage of psychosexual development, during which the infant seeks sexual gratification through oral stimulation (sucking, mouthing, and biting).  anal stage- In Freudian theory, the second stage of psychosexual development, during which sexual gratification is centered on processes of elimination (retention and release of bowel contents).  anal-retentive personality- In Freudian theory, a personality type characterized by perfectionism and excessive needs for self-control as expressed through extreme neatness and punctuality.  anal-expulsive personality- In Freudian theory, a personality type characterized by messiness, lack of self-discipline, and carelessness.  Phallic stage- In Freudian theory, the third stage of psychosexual development, marked by erotic attention on the phallic region (penis in boys, clitoris in girls) and the development of the Oedipus complex.  Oedipus complex- In Freudian theory, the psychological complex in which the young boy or girl develops incestuous feelings toward the parent of the opposite gender and perceives the parent of the same gender as a rival.  Electra complex- The term given by some psychodynamic theorists to the form of the Oedipus complex in young girls.  castration anxiety- In Freudian theory, unconscious fear of removal of the penis as punishment for having unacceptable sexual impulses  penis envy- In Freudian theory, jealousy of boys for having a penis.  Latency stage- In Freudian theory, the fourth stage of psychosexual development, during which sexual impulses remain latent or dormant.  Genital stage- In Freudian theory, the fifth and final stage of psychosexual development, which begins around puberty and corresponds to the development of mature sexuality and emphasis on procreation. Other Psychodynamic approaches o Neo-Freudians 

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Carl Jung  “Analytical Psychology”  Personal vs. Collective Unconscious  Personal – Jung’s term for an unconscious region of mind comprising a reservoir of the individual’s repressed memories and impulses.  Collective – In Jung’s theory, a part of the mind containing ideas and archetypal images shared among humankind that have been transmitted genetically from ancestral humans.  Archetypes – Jung’s term for the primitive images contained in the collective unconscious that reflect ancestral or universal experiences of human beings.  Reflect ancestral or universal human experiences o E.g., Hero, nurturing mother, etc. Alfred Adler  Individual Psychology- Adler’s theory of personality, which emphasizes the unique potential of each individual.  Creative self- In Adler’s theory, the self-aware part of personality that organizes goal-seeking efforts.  Inferiority complex- In Adler’s theory, a concept involving the influence that feelings of inadequacy or inferiority in young children have on their developing personalities and desires to compensate.  drive for superiority- Adler’s term for the motivation to compensate for feelings of inferiority. Also called the will-to-power. Karen Horney  Basic anxiety - In Horney’s theory, a deep-seated form of anxiety in children that is associated with feelings of being isolated and helpless in a world perceived as potentially threatening and hostile.  basic hostility- In Horney’s theory, deep feelings of resentment that children may harbor toward their parents.  “Womb envy”

The Trait Perspective 

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Gordon Allport: A Hierarchy of traits o Cardinal traits- Allport’s term for the more pervasive dimensions that define an individual’s general personality o Central traits- Allport’s term for personality characteristics that have a widespread influence on the individual’s behavior across situation o Secondary traits- Allport’s term for specific traits that influence behavior in relatively few situations Raymond Cattell: Mapping the personality o Surface traits- Cattell’s term for personality traits at the surface level that can be gleaned from observations of behavior o Source traits- Cattell’s term for traits at a deep level of personality that are not apparent in observed behavior but must be inferred based on underlying relationships among surface traits

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Hans Eysenck: a simpler trait model o Introversion-extraversion- Tendencies toward being solitary and reserved on the one end or outgoing and sociable on the other end o Neuroticism- tendencies toward emotional instability, anxiety and worry. o Psychoticism- tendencies to be perceived as could and antisocial The five-factor model of personality: the “big five” o Five- factor model (FFM)- The dominant contemporary trait model of personality, consisting of five broad personality factors:  Neuroticism- Prone to anxiety, worry, guilt, emotional instability versus relaxed, calm, secure, emotionally stable  Extraversion- outgoing friendly, enthusiastic, fun-loving Vs, solitary, shy, serious, reserved  Openness- imaginative, curious, intellectual, open to nontraditional values Vs. conforming, practical conventional  Agreeableness- sensitive, warm, tolerant, easy to et along with, concerned with others feelings and needs Vs cold, suspicious, hostile, callous  Conscientiousness- reliable, responsible, self- disciplined, ethical, hardworking, ambitious Vs disorganized, unreliable, lax, impulsive, carless The genetic basis of traits: moving beyond the nature- nurture debate o Evidence of strong influences from both genetics (40%) and environment (60%) o How might genetics and environment interact?

The social- cognitive perspective 

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Julian Rotter: the locus of control o Expectancies- in social cognitive theory, personal predictions about the outcomes of behavior o Subjective value- in social cognitive theory, the importance individuals place on desired outcomes o Locus of control- in Rotter’s theory, one’s general expectancies about whether one’s efforts can bring about desired outcomes or reinforcements  Internal  External Albert Bandura: reciprocal determinism and the role of expectancies o Reciprocal determinism- bandura’s model in which cognitions, behaviors and environmental factors influence and are influenced by each other o Outcome expectations- bandura’s term for our personal predictions about the outcomes of our behavior o Efficacy expectations- Bandura’s term for the expectancies we have regarding our ability to perform behaviors we set out to accomplish Walter Mischel: Situation Versus Person variables o Situation Variables- mischel’s term for environmental influences on behavior, such as rewards and punishments o Person Variables- Mischel’s term for internal personal factors that influence behavior, including:

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 Competencies  Expectancies  Subjective values  Encoding strategies  Self-regulatory Evaluating the social cognitive perspective o Traditional Behaviorism- Personality is the sum total of an individual’s learned behavior; distinctive patterns of behavior are determined by difference in learning experiences. o Social cognitive theory- Personality consists of both learned behaviors and ways of thinking. We need to attend to the role of cognitions and observational learning to explain and predict behavior, not just to the role of environmental influences such as rewards and punishments.

The human perspective 

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Carl Rogers: The importance of self o Self-theory- Rogers model of personality which focuses on the importance of the self o Unconditional positive regard- Valuing another person as having intrinsic worth, regardless of the person’s behavior at the particular time o Conditional positive regard- valuing a person only when the person’s behavior meets certain expectations or standards o Self- ideals- roger’s term for the idealized sense of how or what we should be Abraham Maslow: scaling the heights of self-actualizationo Self-actualization is a key element of personality and human motivation o Self-actualization- fulfilment of individual potential o Esteem- achievement, respect prestige, status, approval o Love and belongingness- emotional intimacy, friendships, social connections o Safety- safe and secure housing, protection from crime and harsh weather o Physiological- hunger, thirst, avoidance of pain, sexual gratification, elimination Culture and self-identity o Self-identity may be influenced by collectivistic or individualistic cultural values o Collectivistic culture- A culture that emphasizes people’s social roles and obligations. o Individualistic culture- A culture that emphasizes individual identity and personal accomplishments. Evaluating the humanistic perspective o Applying Psychology in Daily Life: Building Self-Esteem  Acquire Competencies: Become Good at Something  Set Realistic, Achievable Goals  Enhance Self-Efficacy Expectations  Create a Sense of Meaningfulness in Your Life  Challenge Perfectionistic Expectations  Challenge the Need for Constant Approval  Avoid Comparing Facebook Profiles

Personality traits

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Self- report personality inventories o Self- report personality inventories – structured psychological tests in which individuals are given a limited range of response options to answer a set of questions about themselves o Objective tests- Tests of personality that can be scored objectively and that are based on a research foundation. o Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) MMPI-2  MMPI-2-Restructured Form  Standard Scores and Clinical Cutoffs  10 Clinical Scales  Profiles from distributions of scores o Evaluation of Self-Report Personality Tests Projective tests o Projective tests- Personality tests in which ambiguous or vague test materials are used to elicit responses that are believed to reveal a person’s unconscious needs, drives, and motives. o Rorschach Test  Designed by Hermann Rorshach (1884-1922)  Based in psychodynamic theory  Projection of internal thoughts onto ambiguous stimuli  Answers not restricted to yes or no o Rich information o Difficult scoring and interpretation o Debate about use o Thematic Apperception Test  Developed by Henry Murray in the 1930s  Ambiguous pictures of different scenes  Construct a story from beginning to end o What’s going on in the scene? o What lead up to events in the scene? o What will be the eventual outcomes? o Evaluation of Projective Tests...