Chapter 12 - Summary A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development PDF

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CHAPTER 12 ADOLESCENCE 1 The self, identity and religious/spiritual development

1 LO 12.1 Discuss self, identity and religious/spiritual development in adolescence.

Self-esteem

Some researchers have found that self-esteem declines in early adolescence for both boys and girls, but the drop for girls is greater. Other researchers caution that these declines are often exaggerated and actually are small. Self-esteem reflects perceptions that do not always match reality. Thus, high self-esteem may be justified or it might reflect an arrogant, grandiose view of one’s self that is not warranted. Controversy characterises whether today’s adolescents and emerging adults are more narcissistic than their counterparts in earlier generations.

Identity

Identity development is complex and is done in bits and pieces. Erikson argues that identity versus identity confusion is the fifth stage of the human life span, which individuals experience during adolescence. A psychosocial moratorium during adolescence allows the personality and role experimentation that are important aspects of identity development. James Marcia proposed four identity statuses—identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium and achievement—that are based on crisis (exploration) and commitment. Increasingly, experts argue the main changes in identity occur in emerging adulthood rather than adolescence. Individuals often follow moratorium-achievement-moratorium-achievement (MAMA) cycles in their lives. Throughout the world, ethnic minority groups have struggled to maintain their identities while blending into the majority culture.

Religious and spiritual development

Many adolescents show an interest in religious and spiritual development. As part of their search for identity, many adolescents and emerging adults begin to grapple with more complex aspects of religion. Various aspects of religion are linked with positive outcomes in adolescent development.

In middle and late childhood, development of self-understanding and understanding others becomes more sophisticated, emotional understanding improves and moral reasoning advances. In Erikson’s view, children now are in the industry versus inferiority stage with their industry reflected in an interest in building things and figuring out how things work. Children now spend more time with peers, but parents continue to play important roles in their development, especially in guiding their academic achievement and managing their opportunities. Peer status and friendship become more important in children’s peer relations and school takes on a stronger academic focus. self-esteem is the overall way we evaluate ourselves. narcissism A self-centred and self-concerned approach towards others. What is identity? Identity is a self-portrait composed of many pieces, including these: • • • • • • •

the career and work path the person wants to follow (vocational/career identity) how a person votes and whether they are conservative or left-leaning in their politics (political identity) the person’s spiritual beliefs (religious identity) whether the person is single, partnered, divorced and so on (relationship identity) the extent to which the person is motivated to achieve and is intellectual (achievement, intellectual identity) whether the person is heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual (sexual identity) which part of the world or country a person is from and how intensely the person identifies

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with his or her cultural heritage (cultural/ethnic identity) the kind of things a person likes to do, which can include sports, music, hobbies and so on (interests) the individual’s personality characteristics, such as being introverted or extroverted, anxious or calm, friendly or hostile, and so on (personality) the individual’s body image (physical identity).

Erikson’s fifth developmental stage, which individuals experience during adolescence, is identity versus identity confusion. During this time, said Erikson, adolescents are faced with deciding who they are, what they are all about and where they are going in life. Cognitive theory. Erikson’s stage for middle and late childhood is industry versus inferiority and for early adulthood is intimacy versus isolation The search for an identity during adolescence is aided by a psychosocial moratorium, which is Erikson’s term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy. Youth who successfully cope with conflicting identities emerge with a new sense of self that is both refreshing and acceptable. Adolescents who do not successfully resolve this identity crisis suffer what Erikson calls identity confusion. The confusion takes one of two courses: individuals withdraw, isolating themselves from peers and family, or they immerse themselves in the world of peers and lose their identity in the crowd. Erikson’s theory of identity development contains four statuses of identity, or ways of resolving the identity crisis: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium and identity achievement. crisis Marcia’s term for a period of identity development during which the adolescent is exploring alternatives. Also known as exploration. commitment Marcia’s term for the part of identity development in which adolescents show a personal investment in identity. The four statuses of identity are: identity diffusion Marcia’s term for the status of individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis (explored meaningful alternatives) or made any commitments. identity foreclosure Marcia’s term for the status of individuals who have made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis. identity moratorium Marcia’s term for the status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis, but their commitments are either absent or vaguely defined. identity achievement Marcia’s term for the status of individuals who have undergone a crisis and have made a commitment. A consensus is developing that the key changes in identity are more likely to take place in emerging adulthood (18 to 25 years of age) or later than in adolescence

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Resolution of the identity issue during adolescence and emerging adulthood does not mean that identity will be stable through the remainder of life. Many individuals who develop positive identities follow what are called ‘MAMA’ cycles; that is, their identity status changes from moratorium to achievement to moratorium to achievement. These cycles may be repeated throughout life. Marcia (2002) points out that the first identity is just that—it is not, and should not be expected to be, the final product. Many adolescents resolve this choice by developing a bicultural identity. That is, they identify in some ways with their ethnic group and in other ways with the majority culture. ethnic identity An enduring, basic aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes and feelings related to that membership. Australian youth were less interested in spiritual development than those in eight other nations. More than one quarter of Australian youth did not believe in a god or a spiritual dimension, four times the international average of non-believers. Australian youth were also less likely to have conversations with friends about topics such as whether there is a god or the meaning of life Researchers have found that adolescent girls are more religious than are adolescent boys Adolescents think more abstractly, idealistically and logically. The increase in abstract thinking lets adolescents consider various ideas about religious and spiritual concepts. Researchers have found that various aspects of religion are linked with positive outcomes for adolescents Religion. Religion plays an important role in the lives of many individuals in adulthood and is linked to their health and coping. 2 Families Parental monitoring

LO 12.2 Describe changes that take place in adolescents’ relationships with their parents. A key aspect of the managerial role of parenting in adolescence is effectively monitoring the adolescent’s development. Monitoring includes supervising adolescents’ choice of social settings, activities, friends and academic efforts. Adolescents’ disclosure to parents about their whereabouts is linked to positive adolescent adjustment.

Autonomy and Many parents have a difficult time handling the adolescent’s push for autonomy, attachment even though the push is one of the hallmarks of adolescence. Adolescents do not simply move into a world isolated from parents; attachment to parents increases the probability that an adolescent will be socially competent. Parentadolescent

Parent-adolescent conflict increases in adolescence. The conflict is usually moderate rather than severe and the increased conflict may serve the positive developmental

CHAPTER 12 ADOLESCENCE conflict

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function of promoting autonomy and identity. A subset of adolescents experiences high parent-adolescent conflict, which is linked with negative outcomes.

Monitoring includes supervising adolescents’ choice of social settings, activities and friends, as well as their academic efforts. Adolescents are more willing to disclose information to parents when parents ask adolescents questions and when adolescents’ relationship with parents is characterised by a high level of trust, acceptance and quality. Researchers have found that adolescents’ disclosure to parents about their whereabouts, activities and friends is linked to positive adolescent adjustment The typical adolescent’s push for autonomy and responsibility puzzles and angers many parents. Most parents anticipate that their teenager will have some difficulty adjusting to the changes that adolescence brings, but few parents imagine and predict just how strong an adolescent’s desires will be to spend time with peers or how intensely adolescents will want to show that it is they—not their parents—who are responsible for their successes and failures. Parenting. In authoritative parenting, parents encourage children and adolescents to be independent but still place limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed and parents are warm and nurturant Adolescents’ ability to attain autonomy and gain control over their behaviour is acquired through appropriate adult reactions to their desire for control Attachment. In secure attachment in infancy, babies use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment. Although adolescents are moving towards independence, they still need to stay connected with families. For example, the US National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health of more than 12 000 adolescents found that those who did not eat dinner with a parent five or more days a week had dramatically higher rates of smoking, drinking, marijuana use, getting into fights and initiation of sexual activity Rather, much of the conflict involves the everyday events of family life, such as keeping a bedroom clean, dressing neatly, getting home by a certain time and not talking forever on the phone. The conflicts rarely involve major dilemmas such as drugs or delinquency. The new model also emphasises that in most families parent-adolescent conflict is moderate rather than severe and that the everyday negotiations and minor disputes not only are normal but also can serve the positive developmental function of helping the adolescent make the transition from childhood dependency to adult independence

3 Peers

LO 12.3 Characterise the changes that occur in peer relationships during adolescence.

CHAPTER 12 ADOLESCENCE Friendships

Harry Stack Sullivan was the most influential theorist to discuss the importance of adolescent friendships. He argued that there is a dramatic increase in the psychological importance and intimacy of close friends in early adolescence. Friends became increasingly important in meeting social need.

Peer groups

The pressure to conform to peers is strong during adolescence, especially during Years 8 and 9. Cliques and crowds assume more importance in the lives of adolescents than in the lives of children.

Dating and romantic relationships

Dating can have many functions. Three stages characterise the development of romantic relationships in adolescence: (1) entry into romantic attractions and affiliations at about 11 to 13 years of age; (2) exploring romantic relationships at approximately 14 to 16 years of age; and (3) consolidating dyadic romantic bonds at about 17 to 19 years of age. Many gay and lesbian youth date other-sex peers, which can help them to clarify their sexual orientation or disguise it from others. Culture can exert a powerful influence on adolescent dating. Dating shows mixed connections with adjustment during adolescence. Early dating is linked with developmental problems.

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Gender. Recent research indicates that relational aggression occurs more in girls than boys in adolescence but not in childhood. Here are some strategies that adults can recommend to adolescents for making friends (Wentzel, 1997): •

• • • •

Initiate interaction. Learn about a friend: ask for his or her name, age, favourite activities. Use these prosocial overtures: introduce yourself, start a conversation and invite him or her to do things. Be nice. Show kindness, be considerate and compliment the other person. Engage in prosocial behaviour. Be honest and trustworthy: tell the truth, keep promises. Be generous, share and be cooperative. Show respect for yourself and others. Have good manners, be polite and courteous and listen to what others have to say. Have a positive attitude and personality. Provide social support. Show you care.

And here are some inappropriate strategies for making friends that adults can recommend that adolescents avoid using (Wentzel, 1997): • •

•

Be psychologically aggressive. Show disrespect and have bad manners. Use others, be uncooperative, don’t share, ignore others, gossip and spread rumours. Present yourself negatively. Be self-centred, snobby, conceited and jealous; show off; care only about yourself. Be mean, have a bad attitude, be angry, throw temper tantrums and start trouble. Behave antisocially. Be physically aggressive, yell at others, pick on them, make fun of them, be dishonest, tell secrets and break promises.

Revealed adolescents who are uncertain about their social identity, which can appear in the form of low self-esteem and high social anxiety, are most likely to conform to peers. This uncertainty often increases during times of transition, such as school and family transitions. Also peers are more likely to conform when they are in the presence of someone they perceive to have higher status than they do.

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clique A small group that ranges from 2 to about 12 individuals, averaging about 5 to 6 individuals, and can form because adolescents engage in similar activities. crowd A crowd is a larger group structure than a clique and is usually formed based on reputation; members may or may not spend much time together. Three stages characterise the development of romantic relationships in adolescence: 1. Entry into romantic attractions and affiliations at about 11 to 13 years of age. This initial stage is triggered by puberty. From 11 to 13, adolescents become intensely interested in romance and it dominates many conversations with same-sex friends. Developing a crush on someone is common and the crush often is shared with a same-sex friend. Young adolescents may or may not interact with the individual who is the object of their infatuation. When dating occurs, it usually occurs in a group setting. 2. Exploring romantic relationships at approximately 14 to 16 years of age. At this point in adolescence, two types of romantic involvement occur: (a) casual dating or ‘hanging out’ emerges between individuals who are mutually attracted. These dating experiences are often short lived, last a few months at best and usually only endure for a few weeks; (b) dating in groups is common and reflects embeddedness in the peer context. Friends often act as a third-party facilitator of a potential dating relationship by communicating their friend’s romantic interest and confirming whether this attraction is reciprocated. 3. Consolidating dyadic romantic bonds at about 17 to 19 years of age. At the end of the high school years, more serious romantic relationships develop. This is characterised by strong emotional bonds more closely resembling those in adult romantic relationships. These bonds often are more stable and enduring than earlier bonds, typically lasting one year or more. Two variations on these stages in the development of romantic relationships in adolescence involve early and late bloomers. Early bloomers include 15 to 20 per cent of 11- to 13-year-olds who say that they currently are in a romantic relationship and 35 per cent who indicate that they have had some prior experience in romantic relationships. Late bloomers comprise approximately 10 per cent of 17to 19-year-olds who say that they have had no experience with romantic relationships and another 15 per cent who report that they have not engaged in any romantic relationships that lasted more than four months. Values, religious beliefs and traditions often dictate the age at which dating begins, how much freedom in dating is allowed, whether dates must be chaperoned by adults or parents and the roles of males and females in dating. revealed that the more romantic experiences they had, the more they reported higher levels of social acceptance, friendship competence and romantic competence; however, having more romantic experience also was linked to a higher level of substance use, delinquency and sexual behaviour. Further, a study of adolescent girls found that those who engaged in co-rumination (excessive discussion of problems with friends) were more likely to be involved in a romantic relationship and together co-rumination and romantic involvement predicted an increase in depressive symptoms. Dating and romantic relationships at an early age can be especially problematic. Researchers have found that early dating and ‘going with’ someone are linked with adolescent pregnancy and problems at home and school.

CHAPTER 12 ADOLESCENCE 4 Culture and adolescent development

7 LO 12.4 Explain how culture influences adolescent development.

Cross-cultural comparisons

There are both similarities and differences in adolescents across different countries. In some countries, traditions are being continued in the socialisation of adolescents, whereas in others, substantial changes in the experiences of adolescents are taking place. Adolescents often fill their time with different activities, depending on the culture in which they live. A rite of passage is a ceremony or ritual that marks an individual’s transition from one status to another, especially into adulthood. In indigenous cultures, rites of passage are often well defined. In contemporary Australia, rites of passage to adulthood are ill defined.

Ethnicity

Many of the families that have immigrated in recent decades to Australia come from collectivist cultures in which there is a strong sense of family obligation. Much of the research on ethnic minority adolescents has not teased apart the influences of ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Because of this failure, too often researchers have given ethnic explanations for characteristics that were largely due to socioeconomic factors. Although not all ethnic minority families are poor, poverty contributes to the stress of many ethnic minority adolescents.

The media

In terms of exposure, the average US 8- to 18-year-old spends 6½ hours a day using electronic media, with the most time spent watching television. If media multitasking is taken i...