Chapter 3 Basic Accountancy Research PDF

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Chapter 3: Basic Accountancy Research – Conceptualization ProcessSpecific Outcomes:After reading this chapter the students should have: Distinguished the process in conducting a basic research; Examined the different sources of researchable problems in the different areas or sectors of the accountan...

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ACC 80 – ACCOUNTING RESEARCH METHODS

Chapter 3: Basic Accountancy Research – Conceptualization Process Specific Outcomes: After reading this chapter the students should have: 1. Distinguished the process in conducting a basic research; 2. Examined the different sources of researchable problems in the different areas or sectors of the accountancy profession; 3. Selected a specific research problem and stated it clearly with the objectives; 4. Determined the importance and coverage of the study or investigation of the identified problem; 5. Applied the proper procedures in conducting a review of related literature; and 6. Identified the appropriate theories and related concepts as framework of the study. 3.1 Basic Accountancy Research Process According to Mendoza (2012), basic research in accountancy consists of five major processes: (1) Conceptualization, (2) Operationalization, (3) Data Collection, (4) Data Processing and Analysis, and (5) Application (Figure 3.1) Conceptualization is the formative process in the conduct of an accountancy research. It involves an understanding of the possible sources of research problem(s) and formulating questions that will be answered by the research. The researcher should be able to appraise certain practices in the field of accountancy that create research problems, either from an academic point of view or from the practice of the profession. Operationalization aims to translate the related concepts into observable units of measure. It also deals with the manner the researcher intends to put value to events and situations covered in the research. Operationalization is an extension of the conceptualization process. The outputs in conceptualization and operationalization constitute the research proposal which is usually required by funding agencies when the project has a financial grant. Once the proposal is approved, data gathering can already start. Data collection involves field work and use of various techniques of data-gathering. These are the means by which evidences are gathered to provide empirical support in answering the research questions. The researcher must be able to differentiate the purposes or uses of the various methods of gathering data and employing the most appropriate ones. Likewise, the researcher should be able to construct a research instrument that will enable data gathering in the most efficient and effective manner. Devising a data gathering plan will be very useful in this process. It is also imperative that the researcher is capable of appraising the quality of data that are relevant to the study. Before going to the field, the researcher should have defined the population from whom research is to be conducted .and have calculated the sample size representative of the population. As a guide, the researcher should have a reliable sampling design. Data Processing and Analysis entails the conversion of data into meaningful information. This requires the use of presentation tools such as tables, graphs, figures, and the like. The competency

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ACC 80 – ACCOUNTING RESEARCH METHODS required is capability of using the various methods of data presentation; explaining the differences between data, facts, and inferences; and stating research findings clearly and accurately. Research Application deals with the capacity of the researcher to translate research outputs into meaningful plans of actions or other modes of interventions that will provide value to the discipline, organizations, and communities.

Conceptualization

Operationalization

Data Collection

Data Processing and Analysis

Application

Figure 3.1. Basic Accountancy Research Process

3.1.a Defining the Research Problem The selection of a research problem is actually the first step in research. Hence, it is essential that utmost care and attention be given to the selection of the research problem – particularly, its identification and analysis, its selection, the way the problem is stated and the manner it is defined. Definition of a Problem  A problem is something that is perceived to be difficult or a discomfort with the way things are. Fisher, et. al. (1983)  The difference between “what should be” from “what is.”  A problem is a challenging situation that requires reflective thinking before one arrives at a solution (Calderon and Gonzales (1993). Sources of a Problem According to Best:  Actual problems encountered.

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ACC 80 – ACCOUNTING RESEARCH METHODS  Technological changes and developments.  Academic or business experience.  Consultation. According to McGuigan:  When there is an absence of information resulting in a gain in knowledge.  When there are contradictory results.  When a fact exists and the researcher intends to make own study to explain it. According to Good and Scates:  Specialization.  Analysis of an area of knowledge.  Consideration of existing practices and needs.  Repetition or extension of investigation.  “Off-shoots” of studies under way Characteristics of a Good Problem 1. The first consideration is that the topic should be of great interest to the researcher. 2. The problem must be useful to concerned people in a particular field. 3. It possesses novelty. 4. Invites more complex design. 5. Can be completed in the allotted time desired. 6. Does not carry ethical or moral impediments. Elements of a Research Problem According to Aquino, a good research problem is one which possess the following elements: 1. Aim or purpose of the problem. This answers the question “Why?” 2. The topic to be investigated. This answers the question “What?” 3. The locale where the research is to be conducted. This answers the question “where?” 4. The time the study is to be undertaken. This answers the question “when?” 5. The population from whom the data will be gathered. This answers the question “who?” 3.1.b Clarifying the Research Questions Clarifying means making something clear or easier to understand by giving more details or a simpler explanation. It is critical, not simple. A Critical Question  leads to more questions  provokes discussion  comes from a careful reading of the text or understanding of a topic  addresses wider issues A Simple Question  can be answered with a "yes" or "no"; ANGELINA B. ABROJENA

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ACC 80 – ACCOUNTING RESEARCH METHODS  can contain the answers within the question;  can be answered by a fact, or a series of facts; and  can easily be found by "Googling". Re-evaluate the Question if:  it can be answered too easily: o by looking it up; o by summarizing a source; and o if the answer seems self-evident because the evidence overwhelmingly favors one answer.  a researcher cannot find enough good evidence and authoritative sources to support an answer because: o no relevant facts exist; o not enough research exists to be considered; and o the question is based on preference.  there are too much information: o the topic is too broad. A useful way to approach the research process is to state the basic dilemma that prompts the research and then try to develop other questions by progressively breaking down the original question into more specific ones. This process can be thought of as the management-research question hierarchy. The process begins at the most general level with the management dilemma. This is usually a symptom of an actual problem, such as rising costs, declining sales, or a large number of defects. A management question is a restatement of the manager’s dilemma in question form. A research question is the hypothesis that best states the objective of the research; the question that focuses the researcher’s attention. Figure 3.2

Figure 3.2. Clarifying the Research Question 3.1.c Literature Search What is Review of Related Literature (RRL)?  The review of literature involves the systematic identification, location and analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem. ANGELINA B. ABROJENA

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ACC 80 – ACCOUNTING RESEARCH METHODS 

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Research literature refers to the published or unpublished reports of actual research studies done previously while conceptual literature pertains to articles or books written by authorities giving their opinions, experiences, theories or ideas of what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable within the problem area. Related literature is composed of discussion of facts and principles to which the present study is related. These materials are usually found in printed materials such as books, encyclopedias, professional journals, magazines, newspapers and other publications.

Importance of Review of Literature  As soon as the research topic has been identified, one should look for the theory linking it with the available body of knowledge.  The review of related literature is an important step in the research process because it does not only give the investigator a complete understanding of what is known about the topic but it also provides many ideas about ways to design and carry out the research more effectively.  Effective research must be based upon past knowledge. Importance of Related Literature and Studies 1. It provides the conceptual or theoretical framework of the planned research. 2. It provides the researcher with the information about past researches related to the intended study. This process prevents duplication of past researches (or unnecessary) duplication of past researches that leads what needs to be investigated. 3. It gives the investigator a feeling of confidence since by means of the review of related literature, he will have on hand all constructs (concepts) related to his study. 4. It gives the researcher information about the research methods used, the population and sampling considered, the instruments used in gathering data, and the statistical computation in previous research. 5. It provides findings and conclusions of past investigations which the researcher may relate to his own findings and conclusions. Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies 1. The surveyed materials should be as recent as possible. 2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased. 3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study. 4. Surveyed materials must have been based genuinely original and true facts to make them valid and reliable. 5. Reviewed materials must not be too few nor too many. Sources of Related Literature and Studies (RLS) 1. Books, encyclopedias, almanacs, and other similar references 2. Articles published in professional journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and other publications 3. Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters and diaries 4. Unpublished theses and dissertations ANGELINA B. ABROJENA

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ACC 80 – ACCOUNTING RESEARCH METHODS 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

The Constitution, and laws and statutes of the land Bulletins, circulars, and orders emanating from government offices and departments, Records of schools, public or private, specially reports on their activities Reports from seminars, educational or otherwise Official reports of all kinds, educational, social, economic, scientific, technological, political, etc. from the government and other entities.

3.2.d Acquiring/Recruiting Participants Participant recruitment is a major challenge in many research studies involving human subjects. This involves a number of activities, including identifying eligible participants, adequately explaining the study to the potential participants, recruiting an adequate sample based on study goals and design, obtaining informed consent and maintaining ethical standards, and retaining participants until study completion. How to recruit participants in Research? Recruiting from current users 1. Build a research panel. This involves creating a database of potential research candidates; 2. Recruit through customer support; 3. Set up live intercepts; 4. Use social media channels; and 5. Ask participants for referrals. 3.2.e Ethical Treatment of the Participants 1. Respect for participants – A researcher should always demonstrate respect in terms of all their interactions with participants including not judging them, not discrediting them, in ensuring that their views are faithfully recorded and given due consideration in the assessment process. Part of this respect is implied by the terminology of ‘participant’ (rather than ‘respondent’ or ‘subject’). An important dimension of this respect relates to ensuring the protection of persons with diminished autonomy, and those who are marginalized or vulnerable. Special recognition and procedures may also be required in the case of Indigenous Peoples. 2. Informed consent – Participation should be the voluntary choice of the participants and should be based on sufficient information and an adequate understanding of the research and the consequences of their participation. This implies that the researcher must disclose all relevant information and any possible risks of participation, especially any issues around what will happen to the data obtained. It is usually expected that informed consent be recorded in writing (as signed consent forms) and be producible by the researcher in the event of an audit up to several years after the research was completed. 3. Specific permission required for audio- or video-recording – If the researcher intends to audio record (i.e. ‘tape’), video record (i.e. ‘film’) or photograph any participant, their specific approval for this must be given in advance. 4. Voluntary participation and no coercion – As implied by the principle of informed consent, participation must be voluntary and not subject to any coercion or threat of harm

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ACC 80 – ACCOUNTING RESEARCH METHODS

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for non-participation. Non-coercion is not taken to mean that there should not be payments for participation; however, any such payment should be commensurate with the amount of time and normal income expectations of the participants, and should not be excessive such that it would constitute a bribe or inappropriate inducement. Right to withdraw – Consistent with the principle of voluntary participation, participants must know that they can withdraw at any time and have any of their data already recorded removed from the analysis where this is possible. Full disclosure of funding sources – An implication of the principle of informed consent is that there must be full disclosure of the sources of funding for the research. No harm to participants – This means that participants must not be exposed to pain or danger in the course of the research (such as in a psychological experiment or medical trial). Also, there must be no adverse consequences to a person as a result of participation. At the very least, the researcher must do their utmost to protect participants from any harm, and to ensure under the principle of informed consent that the participant is fully appraised of all possible risks from participation. Sometimes, participation in social research will necessarily cause a participant to reflect on personal issues, bringing about emotional distress. Here the researcher’s obligation is to ensure that the research interaction does not finish until there is some resolution of the emotional distress that has arisen, and that there is recourse to follow-up assistance or counselling. Avoidance of undue intrusion – Respect for participants means that there will be discussion only of those matters that are relevant to the issues under research and that enquiries should be confined to those issues. It implies a respect for the personal lives of participants and that researchers should be cognizant of what is personal and private. No use of deception – The principle of respect for participants and professional integrity implies that the use of deception or covert methods should only be used under certain circumstances and only when approved by a duly appointed ethics committee. Presumption and preservation of anonymity – There is an assumption of anonymity, that is, people participate in research on the presumption that they will be anonymous and that their anonymity will be protected, unless they have given permission to be named. Thus, there is a requirement for the expressed permission from participants for any use of the real names of people or where a person’s identity would be evident from the context. Right to check and modify a transcript – Where people are named or identifiable, those participants have the right to check how they are quoted and to make changes to a transcript and any draft publication that may be prepared to ensure they agree with the way they are recorded. Some codes suggest that respect for participants means that all participants should be able to check their transcript for accuracy and completeness. Confidentiality of personal matters – Respect for participants means that confidentiality (i.e. non-disclosure of information) should be accorded to all private or personal matters or views, or when any such undertaking is given. This means that there is a responsibility on the researcher to make judgements about what should be reported and what should not be publicly disclosed. The fact that something was revealed to the researcher does

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not automatically entitle the researcher to make it public. When information is entrusted to a researcher in confidence, such confidentiality must be protected. Data protection – Because of the confidentiality of data, care must be taken to ensure that the data are stored securely and safe from unauthorized access. It is also expected that there be a stated timeline for safe disposal of the data. However, because of other institutional requirements that researchers be able to produce raw data in the event of an audit or complaint and to safeguard against fraud, typically this would be a number of years after completion of the project. Enabling participation – Researchers have an ethical responsibility to ensure that all relevant individuals and groups are included in the research, and where they might ordinarily be excluded by reasons of language, access or cost to participate, that there be a genuine attempt to enable participation by providing appropriate means of access such as translation, transportation, or payments to offset the cost of attendance. Ethical governance – For the proper functioning of ethical procedures, it is necessary that there be a system of ethical governance in place. There needs to be a committee or other facility that can review research protocols prior to the research taking place, oversee and/or monitor research activities, provide advice to researchers and participants, and make judgements in relation to complaints. Grievance procedure – Good ethical governance requires that participants have access to a grievance procedure and recourse to corrective action. The grievance procedure must be procedurally fair, and properly disclosed to participants. Appropriateness of research methodology – Respect for participants as well as professional probity means that the research procedure must have reliability and validity. Participants give their time (whether free or paid) on the presumption that the research is legitimate, worthwhile and valid. Full reporting of methods – Research methods and analytical procedures must be fully disclosed to: enable replication of the research by another researcher; enable peer review of the adequacy and ethicality of the methodology; and to encourage critical selfreflection on the limitations of the methodology and any implications for the results and conclusions.

These principles provide ethical guidance to researchers and practitioners and to the institutions in which they work. Rather than be...