Chapter 3 Learning and Memory PDF

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Chapter 3 Learning and Memory ●

Chapter Objectives: 1- The design of a product often is a key driver of its success or failure. 2- It is important to understand how consumers learn about products and services. 3- Conditioning results in learning. 4- Learned associations with brands generalize to other products. 5- There is a difference between classical and instrumental conditioning, and both processes help consumers learn about products. 6- We learn about products by observing others’ behavior. 7- Our brains process information about brands to retain them in memory. 8- The other products we associate with an individual product influence how we will remember it. 9- Products help us to retrieve memories from our past. 10- Marketers measure our memories about products and ads.

How Do We Learn? Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience. The learner need not have the experience directly, however; we can also learn when we observe events that affect others. We learn even when we don’t try: We recognize many brand names and hum many product jingles, for example, even for products we don’t personally use. We call this casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledge incidental learning. Learning is an ongoing process. Our knowledge about the world constantly updates as we are exposed to new stimuli and as we receive ongoing feedback that allows us to modify our behavior when we find ourselves in similar situations at a later time. The concept of learning covers a lot of ground, ranging from a consumer’s simple association between a stimulus such as a product logo (e.g., Coca-Cola) and a response (e.g., “refreshing soft drink”) to a complex series of cognitive activities (e.g., writing an essay on learning for a consumer behavior exam). Psychologists who study learning advance several theories to explain the learning process. These theories range from those that focus on simple stimulus–response connections (behavioral theories) to perspectives that regard consumers as solvers of 1

complex problems who learn abstract rules and concepts when they observe what others say and do (cognitive theories). It’s important for marketers to understand these theories as well, because basic learning principles are at the heart of many consumer purchase decisions.

Behavioral Learning Theories Behavioral learning theories assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events. Psychologists who subscribe to this viewpoint do not focus on internal thought processes. Instead, they approach the mind as a “black box” and emphasize the observable aspects of behavior. The observable aspects consist of things that go into the box (the stimuli or events perceived from the outside world) and things that come out of the box (the responses, or reactions to these stimuli). Two major approaches to learning represent this view: classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning. According to the behavioral learning perspective, the feedback we receive as we go through life shapes our experiences. Similarly, we respond to brand names, scents, jingles, and other marketing stimuli because of the learned connections we form over time. People also learn that actions they take result in rewards and punishments; this feedback influences the way they will respond in similar situations in the future. Consumers who receive compliments on a product choice will be more likely to buy that brand again, whereas those who get food poisoning at a new restaurant are not likely to patronize that restaurant in the future. Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own. Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because we associate it with the first stimulus. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist who conducted research on digestion in animals, first demonstrated this phenomenon in dogs. Pavlov induced classically conditioned learning when he paired a neutral stimulus (a bell) with a stimulus known to cause a salivation response in dogs (he squirted dried meat powder into their mouths). The powder was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because it was naturally capable of causing the response. Over time, the bell became a conditioned stimulus (CS); it did not initially cause 2

salivation, but the dogs learned to associate the bell with the meat powder and began to salivate at the sound of the bell only. The drooling of these canine consumers because of a sound, now linked to feeding time, was a conditioned response (CR) . This basic form of classical conditioning that Pavlov demonstrated primarily applies to responses controlled by the autonomic (e.g., salivation) and nervous (e.g., eye blink) systems. That is, it focuses on visual and olfactory cues that induce hunger, thirst, sexual arousal, and other basic drives. When marketers consistently pair these cues with conditioned stimuli, such as brand names, consumers may learn to feel hungry, thirsty, or aroused when they encounter these brand cues at a later point. Classical conditioning can have similar effects for more complex reactions, too. Even a credit card becomes a conditioned cue that triggers greater spending, especially because as a stimulus it’s present only in situations where we spend money. People learn they can make larger purchases with credit cards, and they also leave larger tips than when they pay by cash. Small wonder that American Express reminds us, “Don’t leave home without it.” Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned (CS) and unconditioned (UCS) stimuli have been paired a number of times.5 Repeated exposures— repetition—increase the strength of stimulus–response associations and prevent the decay of these associations in memory. Some research indicates that the intervals between exposures may influence the effectiveness of this strategy as well as the type of medium the marketer uses; the most effective repetition strategy is a combination of spaced exposures that alternate in terms of media that are more and less involving, such as television advertising complemented by print media. Many classic advertising campaigns consist of product slogans that companies repeat so often they are etched in consumers’ minds. Conditioning will not occur or will take longer if the CS is only occasionally paired with the UCS. One result of this lack of association is extinction, which happens when the effects of prior conditioning diminish and finally disappear. This can occur, for example, when a product is overexposed in the marketplace so that its original allure is lost. The Izod Lacoste polo shirt, with its distinctive crocodile crest, is a good example of this effect. When the once-exclusive crocodile started to appear on baby clothes and many other items, it lost its cachet. Other contenders, such as the Ralph Lauren polo player, successfully challenged it as a symbol 3

of casual elegance. Now that Izod is being more careful about where its logo appears, the brand is starting to regain its “cool” in some circles. Stimulus Generalization Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke similar, conditioned responses. For example, Pavlov noticed in subsequent studies that his dogs would sometimes salivate when they heard noises that only vaguely resembled a bell, such as keys jangling. People also react to other, similar stimuli in much the same way they responded to the original stimulus; we call this generalization a halo effect . A drugstore’s bottle of private-brand mouthwash that is deliberately packaged to resemble Listerine mouthwash may evoke a similar response among consumers, who assume that this “me-too” product shares other characteristics of the original. Indeed, consumers in one study on shampoo brands tended to rate those with similar packages as similar in quality and performance as well. This “piggybacking” strategy can cut both ways: When the quality of the me-too product turns out to be lower than that of the original brand, consumers may exhibit even more positive feelings toward the original. However, if they perceive the quality of the two competitors to be about equal, consumers may conclude that the price premium they pay for the original is not worth it. Stimulus Discrimination Stimulus discrimination occurs when a UCS does not follow a stimulus similar to a CS. When this happens, reactions weaken and will soon disappear. Part of the learning process involves making a response to some stimuli but not to other, similar stimuli. Manufacturers of well-established brands commonly urge consumers not to buy “cheap imitations” because the results will not be what they expect.

Marketing applications of classical conditioning principles (Check the Textbook P. 133) Instrumental Conditioning Instrumental conditioning (or operant conditioning) occurs when we learn to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and avoid those that yield negative outcomes. We most closely associate this learning process with the psychologist B.

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F. Skinner, who demonstrated the effects of instrumental conditioning by teaching pigeons and other animals to dance, play Ping-Pong, and perform other activities when he systematically rewarded them for desired behaviors. Whereas responses in classical conditioning are involuntary and fairly simple, we make those in instrumental conditioning deliberately to obtain a goal, and these may be more complex. We may learn the desired behavior over a period of time as a shaping process rewards our intermediate actions. For example, the owner of a new store may award prizes to shoppers who simply drop in; she hopes that over time they will continue to drop in and eventually even buy something. Also, whereas classical conditioning involves the close pairing of two stimuli, instrumental learning occurs when a learner receives a reward after he or she performs the desired behavior. In these cases, learning takes place over time, while the learner attempts and abandons other behaviors that don’t get reinforced. A good way to remember the difference is to keep in mind that in instrumental learning the person makes a response because it is instrumental to gain a reward or avoid a punishment. Over time, consumers come to associate with people who reward them and to choose products that make them feel good or satisfy some need. Instrumental conditioning occurs in one of three ways: 1 When the environment provides positive reinforcement in the form of a reward, this strengthens the response and we learn the appropriate behavior. For example, a woman who gets compliments after wearing Obsession perfume learns that using this product has the desired effect, and she will be more likely to keep buying the product. 2 Negative reinforcement also strengthens responses so that we learn the appropriate behavior. A perfume company might run an ad showing a woman sitting home alone on a Saturday night because she did not wear its fragrance. The message this conveys is that she could have avoided this negative outcome if only she had used the perfume. 3 In contrast to situations where we learn to do certain things to avoid unpleasantness, punishment occurs when unpleasant events follow a response (such as when our friends ridicule us if we wear a nasty-smelling fragrance). We learn the hard way not to repeat these behaviors.

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To help you understand the differences among these mechanisms, keep in mind that reactions from a person’s environment to his or her behavior can be either positive or negative, and that marketers can either apply or remove these outcomes (or anticipated outcomes). That is, under conditions of both positive reinforcement and punishment, the person receives a reaction when he or she does something. In contrast, negative reinforcement occurs when the person avoids a negative outcome—the removal of something negative is pleasurable and hence is rewarding. Finally, when a person no longer receives a positive outcome, extinction is likely to occur, and the learned stimulus–response connection will not be maintained (as when a woman no longer receives compliments on her perfume). Thus, positive and negative reinforcement strengthen the future linkage between a response and an outcome because of the pleasant experience. This tie is weakened under conditions of both punishment and extinction because of the unpleasant experience. Figure 4.1 will help you to “reinforce” the relationships among these four conditions. Figure 4.1 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT

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Marketing applications of instrumental conditioning principles (Check Textbook P. 140) Cognitive Learning Theory Unlike behavioral theories of learning, cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental processes. This perspective views people as problemsolvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environments. Supporters of this view also stress the role of creativity and insight during the learning process. Is Learning conscious or not? A lot of controversy surrounds the issue of whether or when people are aware of their learning processes. Whereas behavioral learning theorists emphasize the routine, automatic nature of conditioning, proponents of cognitive learning argue that even these simple effects are based on cognitive factors: They create expectations that a response will follow a stimulus (the formation of expectations requires mental activity). According to this school of thought, conditioning occurs because subjects develop conscious hypotheses and then act on them. There is some evidence to support the existence of nonconscious procedural knowledge. People apparently do process at least some information in an automatic, passive way, a condition that researchers call “mindlessness” (we’ve all experienced that!). When we meet someone new or encounter a new product, for example, we have a tendency to respond to the stimulus in terms of existing categories we have learned, rather than taking the trouble to formulate new ones. In these cases a trigger feature—some stimulus that cues us toward a particular pattern—activates a reaction. For example, men in one study rated a car in an ad as superior on a variety of characteristics if a seductive woman (the trigger feature) was present, despite the fact that the men did not believe the woman’s presence actually had an influence on their evaluations. Nonetheless, many modern theorists regard some instances of automatic conditioning as cognitive processes, especially when people form expectations about the linkages between stimuli and responses. Indeed, studies using masking effects, which make it difficult for subjects to learn CS and UCS associations, show substantial reductions in conditioning.

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An adolescent girl may observe that women on television and in real life seem to be rewarded with compliments and attention when they smell nice and wear alluring clothing. She figures out that the probability of these rewards occurring is greater when she wears perfume, so she deliberately wears a popular scent to obtain the reward of social acceptance. For now, the jury is out regarding the true impact of nonconscious processing and priming because this question currently is one of the hottest debates in the field of psychology. Observational Learning Observational learning occurs when we watch the actions of others and note the reinforcements they receive for their behaviors. In these situations, learning occurs as a result of vicarious rather than direct experience. This type of learning is a complex process; people store these observations in memory as they accumulate knowledge and then they use this information at a later point to guide their own behavior. Particularly when we are preoccupied with other demands, we are likely to mimic others’ behaviors as a social default. Modeling (not the runway kind) is the process of imitating the behavior of others. For example, a woman who shops for a new kind of perfume may remember the reactions her friend received when she wore a certain brand several months before, and she will mimic her friend’s behavior in the hope that she will get the same feedback. The modeling process is a powerful form of learning, and people’s tendencies to imitate others’ behaviors can have negative effects. Of particular concern is the potential of television shows and movies to teach violence to children. Children may be exposed to new methods of aggression by models (e.g., cartoon heroes) in the shows they watch. At some later point, when the child becomes angry, he or she may imitate these behaviors. A classic study demonstrates the effect of modeling on children’s actions. Kids who watched an adult stomp on, knock down, and otherwise torture a large inflated “Bobo doll” repeated these behaviors when later left alone in a room with the doll; children who did not witness these acts did not. Unfortunately, the relevance of this study to violent TV shows seems quite clear. Figure 4.2 shows that for observational learning in the form of modeling to occur, the marketer must meet four conditions:

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1 The consumer’s attention must be directed to the appropriate model, whom, for reasons of attractiveness, competence, status, or similarity, he or she must want to emulate. 2 The consumer must remember what the model says or does. 3 The consumer must convert this information into actions. 4 The consumer must be motivated to perform these actions. Figure 4.2 THE OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING PROCESS

Memory Memory is a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be available when we need it. Contemporary approaches to the study of memory employ an information-processing approach. They assume that the mind is in some ways like a computer: Data are input, processed, and output for later use in revised form. Figure 4.5 summarizes the memory process: 1 In the encoding stage, information enters in a way the system will recognize. 2 In the storage stage, we integrate this knowledge with what is already in memory and “warehouse” it until it is needed. 3 During retrieval, we access the desired information. Many of our experiences are locked inside our heads, and they may surface years later if the right cues prompt them. Marketers rely on consumers to retain information they collect about products and services so they will apply it to future purchase decisions. We combine this internal memory with external memory when we decide what to buy. This includes all the product details on packages and other marketing stimuli that permit us to 9

identify and evaluate brand alternatives in the marketplace. The grocery-shopping list is a good example of a powerful external memory aid. When consumers use shopping lists, they buy approximately 80 percent of the items on the list. The likelihood that a shopper will purchase a particular list item is higher if the person who wrote the list also participates in the shopping trip. This means that if marketers can induce consumers to plan to purchase an item before they go shopping, there is a high probability that they will buy it. One way to encourage this kind of advance planning is to provide peel-off stickers on packages so that, when consumers notice the supply is low, they can simply peel off the label and place it directly on a shopping list. Or, a retailer can support a phone app that generates a shopping list for the user (you already can choose from an abundance of apps that do this). Figure 4.5 TYPES OF MEMORY

How Our brains encode information The way we encode, or mentally program, information helps to determine how our brains will store this information. In general, it’s more likely that we’ll retain incoming data when we associate it with other things already in memory. For example, we tend to remember brand names that we link to physical characteristics of a product category (e.g., CoffeeMate creamer or Sani-Flush toilet bowl cleaner) or that we can easily visualize (e.g., Tide detergent or Ford Must...