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Starr-Waterman American Popular Music Chapter 3: “Catching as the Small-Pox”: Social Dance and Jazz, 1917‒1935 Lecture Outline I.

Technology and the Music Business a. Production and consumption of popular music influenced by new technologies i. Radio ii. Sound film b. New institutions to protect rights of composers and music publishers c. Great Depression i. Affected phonograph and film industries ii. Helped boost popularity of radio: provided customers a cheaper way to hear a variety of music, both recorded and live iii. Music industry became increasingly centralized iv. Record industry: rapid expansion after WWI followed by precipitous decline 1. Increasing reliance on phonograph records rather than sheet music to popularize songs and artists 2. 1919: first hit song to be popularized in recorded form before it was released as sheet music a. “Mary” composed by George Stoddard and performed by Joseph C. Smith’s Orchestra 3. “Novelty”: term commonly used as a sales gimmick d. Early 1920s: nearly 100 million records being pressed each year e. 1925: electric recording i. Microphone: replaced older system of acoustic recording, where performers had to project into a huge megaphone; “high-fidelity” technology that allowed recording engineers greater latitude in manipulating musical sounds to produce certain effects 1. Allowed engineers to isolate and amplify sounds, including an individual human voice a. New manner of singing: intimate style called crooning f. Radio network: new medium i. 1906: first radio program in the United States broadcast ii. After WWI, military restrictions on broadcasting encouraged the growth of the industry iii. 1920: first three commercial radio stations established iv. Network radio developed 1. 1926: first nationwide commercial radio—National Broadcasting Company (NBC) 2. Followed by Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), Mutual Broadcasting System, and American Broadcasting System (ABC)

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v. Popular music: staple of commercial radio 1. Stations carried live broadcasts of dance bands and singers 2. Music stars created by radio vi. 1930: further expansion of music broadcasting 1. Superstar crooners: Rudy Vallee, Bing Crosby, Russ Colombo 2. Sponsors: competed for access to top shoes and stars 3. Disc jockeys: radio announcers who played records and provided entertaining patter a. Make Believe Ballroom (1932) g. Sound film i. Introduced in 1927 1. The Jazz Singer (1927): based on a successful Broadway play, starring Al Jolson, a vaudeville superstar. The film tells the story of a Jewish cantor’s son who becomes a success singing “jazz” songs in blackface. ii. The Broadway Melody (1929): The first “all talking, all singing, all dancing” film musical, released by MGM. It won an Oscar in 1930 for best picture of the year, helping establish musical cinema as a legitimate form iii. 1929: smaller studios wiped out by Depression, and control consolidated in the hands of the major studios h. Licensing and copyright agencies: set up to control the flow of profits from the sale and broadcast of popular music i. ASCAP (American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers): founded in 1914 to attempt to force all business establishments that featured live music to pay fees for the public use of music 1. ASCAP won its case in 1917: all hotels, theaters, dance halls, cabarets, and restaurants required to purchase a license from ASCAP before they could play music written or published by a member of the organization 2. Similar rulings regarding radio stations and motion picture studios “Freak Dances”: Turkey Trot and Tango a. Intensified influence of African American dance i. 1910: craze for orchestrated versions of ragtime songs 1. Fads loosely based on black styles: Texas Tommy, turkey trot, bunny hug, grizzly bear, Boston dip, one-step, fox-trot, etc. a. Developed in clubs and dance halls in cities, observed by vaudeville performers who put them into their acts ii. WWI: variety of ensembles responding to public demand for new styles of syncopated dance music 1. Typical cabaret dance band: violin (lead melodic instrument), two or more brass instruments, two or more reed instruments, and a

“rhythm section” made up of piano, banjo or guitar, and drums, sometimes a string bass or tuba 2. Dance halls played music in strictly prearranged sequences or “programs” 3. Early 20th century dance bands: began to make decisions on the spot and take audience requests 4. Popular songs of Tin Pan Alley: arranged for singer with dance band or strictly instrumental 5. Rise of hundreds of dance halls and cabarets a. Cabaret: term by mid-1910s that signified any establishment offering food, drinks, floor shows, and dancing: laboratory for new dance steps and major source of employment for musicians b. Turkey trot: dances like it represented a departure from the restrained movements that previously dominated social dancing among white middle and upper classes i. Ragtime dances regarded as a threat to public morality ii. “bumpers”: mechanical devices placed between the bodies of dancers to keep them separated iii. The United Neighborhood Guild of Brooklyn: outlawed certain dances within borough limits iv. Prohibition: illegal alcohol consumption associated with “racy” cabaret atmosphere c. Ragtime arrangements for the ballroom i. Phonograph recordings of ragtime-influenced dance bands from 1910s and 1920s: little experience in syncopated music at the time for most audiences d. Tango: developed in late 19th-century Buenos Aires i. Blend of European ballroom dance music, Cuban habanera, Italian light opera, and the ballads of the Argentine gauchos (cowboys) ii. Introduced to New York City by Maurice Mouvet in 1910 iii. Appeared in a Broadway revue The Sunshine Girl (1913) with Irene and Vernon Castle 1. Performances of the turkey trot and the tango created a sensation iv. Tango tea: afternoon event at which society women took dance lessons with young male instructors v. Rudolph Valentino: dance teacher and gigolo who became a star of silent film 1. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1921) vi. Main feature of the tango: bent-knee posture 1. Common to many African-influenced dance traditions in the Americas 2. Freed up the dancers’ hips and upper body 3. Americanized tango by the Castles was an antiseptic version

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vii. Passionate associations: evoked by insistent four-beat pulse, dramatic changes in volume, and sudden starts and stops viii. Typical instrumentation included a bandoneón, violin, bass, and piano James Reese Europe and the Castles a. Vernon and Irene Castle: biggest media superstars of the years around World War I i. Vernon Blyth: Englishman who stumbled into American show business ii. Irene: born in New Rochelle, NY, rejected as a stage dancer for being too awkward iii. 1912‒1918: did more than anyone to change the course of social dancing in America 1. Attracted millions of middle-class Americans into ballroom classes 2. Expanded the stylistic range of popular dance 3. Established image of mastery, charisma, and romance later seen in teams such as Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers iv. Vernon: responsible for the couple’s choreography and breaking complex dance movements into manageable sequences (figures) that could be easily learned by nonprofessionals 1. Asserted that knowledge of six basic movements was sufficient for the “average ballroom tango” v. Elizabeth Marbury: New York City socialite wrote the intro in the Castles’ dance instruction manual, Modern Dancing; introduced Castles to NY society, franchised their name and photo images, and made sure that they took advantage of mass media 1. Castle Park: Coney Island 2. Castles-by-the-Sea: Long Beach 3. Castles-in-the-Air: Manhattan b. James Reese Europe (1880‒1919): African American musical director hired by Vernon and Irene Castle. i. Gained a reputation as an accomplished pianist and conductor, playing ragtime piano in cabarets and acting as music director for all-black vaudeville revues ii. 1910: founded the Clef Club: functioned as social club, booking agency, and trade union for African American musicians 1. Booked musicians in dance halls, ballrooms, and Carnegie Hall iii. 1913: Castles attended a private society party where they danced to Europe’s Clef Club Orchestra 1. 1913‒1918: composed music for all the Castles’ “new” dance steps and provided musicians for live engagements iv. Career as a popular dance musician skyrocketed, but continued to devote energy to establishing a black symphony orchestra that would specialize in the works of African American composers 1. Interrupted in 1916 when he went to WWI

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a. “Hell Fighters”: company of soldiers i. Hell Fighters Band: sensation with concerts in Paris 1. Took band on US tour after the war 2. Stabbed by a band member after an argument and died in 1919 Listening Guide: “Castle House Rag” a. Music by James Reese Europe, performed by James Reese Europe’s Society Orchestra, recorded 1914 i. 1913: Europe’s Society Orchestra became the first black group to sign a contract with a record company ii. Musical influences: ragtime, marching band iii. Form: AABBACCDDEEF Jazz as Popular Music: The Original Dixieland Jazz Band, the Creole Jazz Band, and Louis Armstrong a. Jazz craze: next stage in the “African Americanization” of ballroom dance b. Jazz: sometimes called “jass” or “hot music”: emerged in New Orleans, LA, around 1900 i. New Orleans: gateway between US and Caribbean 1. Culturally distinct white, Creole, and black communities 2. Hybrid musical culture 3. Jazz: black musicians who lived “uptown” and were surrounded by genres such as the spirituals and the blues, Creole musicians who lived “downtown” and more likely to have received formal European-style musical training c. Origins of jazz: term carried multiple meanings in New Orleans i. Music: emerged from confluence of traditions: ragtime, marching bands, Mardi Gras and funeral processions, French and Italian opera, Cuban habanera, Tin Pan Alley songs, spirituals, and the blues d. Earliest jazz bands i. Dance bands: violin, guitar, mandolin, string bass, and sometimes a wind instrument 1. Rowdy contexts for social dancing: addition of drum set, cornet or trumpet, trombone, and clarinet, which could project over the noise of a boisterous crowd e. First recordings: made in New York City and Chicago (no studios in New Orleans at the time) i. First recording to be labeled “jass” was made in 1917 ii. Nick LaRocca (1889‒1961): leader of a white group from New Orleans called the Original Dixieland Jazz Band, recordings of “Libery Stable Blues” and “Dixieland Jass Band One-Step” were released in 1917 iii. Controversy about relationship of music played by Original Dixieland Jazz Band on the first phonograph records designated as jazz to the style played by African American musicians in New Orleans

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1. LaRocca: patently false claim that white musicians had invented jazz Listening Guide: Early Jazz Recordings a. “Tiger Rag,” written by Nick LaRocca; performed by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band, recorded 1918 i. “frontline” of three wind instruments: cornet, clarinet, trombone ii. Rhythm section: piano and “trap set” consisting of snare drum, tom-tom, cymbals, and wood block iii. Cornet typically carries the main melody iv. “collective improvisation”: the players simultaneously embellish their parts with personal touches v. Syncopation: cornet player plays a syncopated pattern vi. Stoptime: musical trick in which the band stops abruptly for a few beats and one instrument plays a brief solo vii. Unusual instrumental techniques: glides and slides—increased sense of novelty b. “Dipper Mouth Blues,” written by King Joe Oliver; performed by the Creole Jazz Band; recorded 1923 i. One of the earliest recordings of African American jazz musicians from New Orleans—identified as the first authentic evidence of a mature jazz style ii. King Joe Oliver (1885‒1938): cornetist, played in brass bands, dance bands, and small groups in New Orleans, popularity crossed economic and racial boundaries 1. 1918: moved to Chicago to join the Creole Jazz Band 2. 1922: led the group, took up residence at Lincoln Gardens (ballroom) 3. Success of the group attributed to Oliver’s skill as a bandleader 4. Style: emphasized short melodic phrases and four-square rhythm a. Repertory of expressive musical gestures b. Known for use of mutes iii. Syncopations played more smoothly than “Tiger Rag” iv. Improvisation plays a prominent role v. Made up of three basic sections vi. Disciplined balance between improvisation and composition Louis Armstrong a. Louis Armstrong (1901-1971): built a six-decade musical career that challenges the distinction between artistic and commercial sides of jazz music i. Established certain core features of jazz: rhythmic drive, swing, and emphasis on solo instrumental virtuosity ii. Profoundly influenced the development of mainstream popular singing during the 1920s and 1930s b. Life and musical development

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

vi. vii. viii.

Born into poverty in slums of New Orleans “black” as opposed to Creole Migrated to Chicago to join the band of his mentor King Joe Oliver Playing second cornet developed his musical sensitivity and knowledge of harmony and countermelody 1924: joined Fletcher Henderson’s band in New York City—pushing the group in the direction of a hotter, more improvisatory style that helped create the synthesis of jazz and ballroom music that would later be called swing Sophisticated, flowing solos, long syncopated phrases—strong influence on New York jazz musicians 1930s: best known black musician in the world Listening Guide: Louis Armstrong 1. “West End Blues” (1928) a. Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five b. Development of jazz as an art form c. 15-second trumpet cadenza begins the piece d. First section in a slow, stately tempo i. First time—Armstrong plays the melody, second time—trombone takes lead, third time features a call-and-response duet between the clarinet and Armstrong scatting ii. Earl “Fatha” Hines: innovative and varied piano solo e. Final chorus: carefully arranged, with clarinet holding a long note, trombone playing squarely on the first beat of each phrase, and piano and banjo holding a steady pulse— Armstrong’s elaboration on the melody f. No crooners able to appropriate Armstrong’s rough, gravelly tone color, rhythmic drive, or gift for improvisation, but all influenced by his treatment of popular songs 2. “Ain’t Misbehavin’” (1929) a. Composed by Thomas “Fats” Waller (1904‒1943), featured in Broadway show Hot Chocolates (1929) b. Complete sung refrain heard between two instrumental statements of the same music i. Both instrumental sections spotlight Armstrong on trumpet c. Use of “scat” singing (employing nonsense syllables) in the bridge d. Humor in music: “false endings” and quotations (from Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue)

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ix. Armstrong often spoke of the importance of maintaining a balance between improvisation and straightforward treatment of the melody 1. Performances infuse his warm and ebullient personality— precursor to highly personalized treatments of songs of later genres x. Professional longevity—became the oldest musician ever to score a number one hit with his version of “Hello Dolly!” and the first to push a Beatles record off the top charts 1. Last hit record re-released with a movie after his death (Good Morning, Vietnam, 1988) Dance Music in the “Jazz Age” a. Jazz Age: era in popular culture in America i. Subculture emerged in white upper and middle classes: “jazz babies” and “flappers,” “jazzbos,” or “sheiks” 1. Movement involved a blend of elements from “high culture”: F. Scott Fitzgerald novels, Pablo Picasso paintings, plays of Eugene O’Neill, and popular culture—music, dance, and speech modeled on black American prototypes b. African American influence on musical tastes and buying habits of white Americans i. Noble Sissle (1899‒1975) and Eubie Blake (1883‒1983): songwriting team who launched the first successful all-black Broadway musical, Shuffle Along 1. “I’m Just Wild About Harry” and “Love Will Find a Way” 2. Portrayed romantic relationships between black characters without resorting to degrading stereotypes 3. Seating arrangements in theatre: blacks could sit in sections previously reserved for whites 4. Racial inequality: musicians in the orchestra had to memorize their parts to appear to be playing by ear, reinforcing the belief that black musicians were not able to read music and that their ability was just natural c. Segregation in dance orchestras i. Most successful orchestras able to extend appeal across racial boundaries ii. “race music”: special segregated catalogs from record companies iii. Most popular black dance bands listed in the mainstream popular catalogs iv. 1920s: white jazz fans began to frequent nightclubs in African American neighborhoods 1. Harlem’s famous Cotton Club a. Duke Ellington developed a style he called “jungle music” v. African American musicians had to work through the stereotypes of blackness prevalent in white society vi. The most economically successful dance bands: led and staffed by white musicians

1. Many bands specialized in one of three main categories to attract a particular audience: “hot,” “sweet,” or “Latin” d. Paul Whiteman i. Paul Whiteman (1890‒1967): leader of the Ambassador Orchestra, fine musician and astute businessman, assumed title “King of Jazz” 1. Widened market for jazz-based dance music (paving the way for the Swing Era) 2. Hired brilliant young jazz players and arrangers 3. Established level of professionalism widely imitated by dance bands on both sizes of the color line 4. Defended jazz against its moral critics ii. Seven-piece dance band prior to WWI iii. Enlisted in the Navy, and directed a 40-piece concert band iv. After the war, played at a hotel and became a favorite of Hollywood film stars v. “Whispering”: arrangement played at a medium tempo, with a bouncy fox-trot rhythm appropriate for ballroom dancing in the style popularized by Irene and Vernon Castle 1. Mix of syncopation and careful arrangement, rhythmic pep and gentility—became the core of Whiteman’s symphonic jazz 2. Record sold out of stores nationwide 3. First of amazing string of hit records a. 1920‒1934: Whiteman had 28 number 1 records, and 150 in the top ten 4. Ambassador Orchestra expanded number of players a. Hired pioneering dance band arrangers to craft his band’s book (library of music) b. Promoted jazz-influenced crooners vi. Jazz, autobiography 1. “jazz missionary”: attitudes common among white Americans in 1920s and 30s a. Jazz music, and African American culture in general— defined either negatively or by the absence of certain criteria of civilization 2. Begins his book by identifying African music and the slave trade as origin points of jazz, but African Americans are absent from the rest of his story and his orchestra 3. The King of Jazz (1930): Sound film in which Paul Whiteman appears as a magician stirring a bubbling cauldron into which ingredients of jazz are thrown: English ballads, Scottish bagpipes, Irish gig, Austrian waltz, Italian opera, Spanish flamenco, Russian balalaikas, but no evidence of ethnic groups most responsible for

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jazz: African Americans, and its inclusion in popular song, theater, and film (Jewish immigrants) e. Influence of jazz on youth i. Jazz associated with feeble-mindedness, crime, and immorality, and explicitly linked with immigration and interracial sex as causes of national degeneration ii. Primary motivation was really to prevent musical mixing between blacks and whites out of fear that intermingling might encourage interracial miscegenation f. Mainstream popular music and jazz i. White audience initially regarded jazz as an updated form of ragtime ii. Positioned in the music business as a kind of novelty music iii. Jazz as heady, daring, humorous, slightly dangerous—a way to experience black culture without having to come in proximity with black people iv. Potential audience—expanded as a result of South-North migration during WWI 1. Seeking employment in factories—southerners moved to northern cities Listening ...