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CHAPTER 5: PERSUASION - Persuasion: process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviours.

PATHS TO PERSUASION - Process of persuasion.

- To elicit action, a persuasive message must clear several hurdles. o Factors that help ppl clear those hurdles, increase persuasion.  The Central Route and The Peripheral Route. - Petty & Cacioppo  theorized 2 routes to persuasion. o Central route. o Peripheral route.

- Central route persuasion  occurs when ppl focus on the arguments and respond w favourable thoughts. (explicit & reflective route) o Occurs when ppl are motivated & able to think systematically abt the issue. o If arguments are strong & compelling  persuasion. o If arguments are weak & not compelling  ppl will counter-argue. (i.e.) car ads  provide audience w info on features and competitive prices.  Audience is likely to be interested and logical. o #Central route processing quickly changes explicit attitudes. - Peripheral route persuasion  occurs when ppl focus on incidental cues that trigger acceptance without much thinking. (implicit & automatic route) (i.e.) cue = speaker’s attractiveness. o Occurs when ppl aren’t motivated enough or able to think carefully abt an issue (distracted, uninvolved, busy).

(i.e.) Coca-Cola ads  associate product w glamour & pleasure.  Audience is likely to be uninterested & make decisions based on feelings rather than on logic. o When taking peripheral route, ppl use “rule-ofthumb” heuristics to make snap judgements. (i.e.) heuristic  “trust the experts” o #Peripheral route processing slowly builds implicit attitudes. - Central route processing produces more enduring attitude change (than peripheral route does). o Bc it gets ppl thinking deeply, not just superficially.

ELEMENTS OF PERSUASION - Elements of persuasion: (what makes persuasion effective?) o The communicator. (who says it) o The message. (what is said) o The channel. (how it is said) o The audience. (to whom it is said)  The Communicator. - Who is saying smth affects how an audience receives it. # Characteristics of an effective/persuasive communicator…  Credibility. - Credibility: believability; perceived expertise and trustworthiness.

o Credible communicators are more persuasive. o Communicators gain credibility if they seem expert and trustworthy. - Effects of source credibility decrease after a month. # Bc the impact of a person’s credibility on a persuasive message fades as its source is forgotten or dissociated from the message. o If person is credible  persuasiveness of message decreases over time. o If person is not credible  persuasiveness of message increases over time. (sleeper effect) - Sleeper effect: delayed impact of a message; occurs when ppl forget the source but remember the message. (delayed persuasion) o Particularly effective when attitudes are based on beliefs rather than on emotional info. - Factors increasing perceived credibility of speaker: o Having congenial views to the listener. (expertise) o Being seen as knowledgeable on the topic. (expertise) (i.e.) a message abt tooth brushing from “DR. James Rundle of the Canadian Dental Association” vs. from “Jim Rundle, a local high school student who did a project w some of his classmates on dental hygiene”. o Speaking confidently. (expertise) o Talking fast. (trustworthiness) o Looking listener straight in the eye. (trustworthiness) o If listener believes the speaker is NOT trying to persuade them. (trustworthiness)

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o Arguing against one’s own self-interest. (trustworthiness)  Attractiveness & Liking. Attractiveness: having qualities that appeal to an audience. o Forms of attractiveness  physical attractiveness & similarity. We are influenced by likeability & attractiveness. o We’re more responsive to ppl we like. o Our liking may open us up to the communicator’s arguments (central route persuasion), or it may trigger positive associations when we see the product later (peripheral route persuasion). Physical attractiveness. o Arguments (especially emotional ones) are often more persuasive when they come from ppl we consider attractive. o Attractiveness matters most when ppl are making superficial judgements. Similarity. o We tend to like ppl who are like us & we’re influenced by them. o We’re also more influenced by ppl who act like we do (mimicking our posture). (i.e.) salesman trick “mimic and mirror” Attractive communicators (ppl similar to audience) are most persuasive on matters of subjective preference (i.e. personal value, taste, way of life). o If we believe that the communicator truly likes the product they’re endorsing, we’re more likely to view it positively & to buy it.

- #Dissimilar communicators are most persuasive on matters of objective reality (i.e. facts). - Persuasion principles: (ASS LiCkeR) o Authority  ppl defer to credible experts. o Liking  ppl respond more affirmatively to those they like. o Social proof  ppl allow the example of others to validate how to think, feel, and act. o Reciprocity  ppl feel obliged to repay in kind what they’ve received. o Consistency  ppl tend to honour their public commitments. o Scarcity  ppl prize what’s scarce.  The Message.  Reason vs Emotion. # Is reason or emotion more influential/persuasive? - It depends on the audience. o Interested audiences (central route)  persuaded by reasoned arguments. (reason) o Disinterested audiences (peripheral route)  persuaded by how much they like the communicator. (emotion) - It also depends on how ppl’s attitudes were formed. o If they were formed thru emotion  more persuaded by later emotional appeals. o If they were formed thru reason  more persuaded by later reasoned arguments. - Effect of good feelings  messages can become more persuasive when associated w good feelings.

o People often make quicker, more impulsive decisions while in good moods. (peripheral route) - Effect of arousing fear  messages can also become more persuasive when associated w negative emotions. (i.e.) graphic warning labels on cigarette packs to discourage smoking o The more frightened ppl are, the more they’re persuaded.  Greater fear = greater persuasion. o Witte developed the Extended Parallel Process model.  He found that fear can lead to 2 alternatives.  Danger control  engaging in the healthier, promoted behaviour.  Fear control  “it won’t happen to me”. o To trigger danger control, the person must perceive that…  An effective solution is available. (response efficacy)  They’re capable of implementing that solution. (self-efficacy) o Gain-framed messages are just as effective as lossframed messages.  Gain-framed messages  focus on advantages of healthy behaviour.  Loss-framed messages  focus on disadvantages of unhealthy behaviour. o Other factors that influence success:  Perceived vulnerability. (vulnerable)  Specificity of recommendations. (recommendations)

 Argument quality. (argument)  Discrepancy. # How discrepant should a message be from an audience’s opinions? - Greater disagreement can produce more change. o Bc disagreement produces discomfort, & discomfort prompts ppl to change their opinions. - But, greater disagreement can also produce less change. o Bc a communicator who argues an uncomfortable message may be discredited. (i.e. “oh they’re just biased”) - It depends on credibility of the communicator. o Only a highly credible communicator produces considerable opinion change when arguing a position largely discrepant from audience’s opinion.  Small discrepancy  small opinion change.  Large discrepancy  large opinion change. - It also depends on the involvement of the audience. o Involved audience  accepts only minimally discrepant opinions. o Uninvolved audience  accepts largely discrepant opinions.  One-Sided vs Two-Sided Appeals. # Is a one- or a two-sided message most persuasive? - Acknowledging the opposing argument could confuse the audience and weaken the case. o But, the message might seem fairer and more disarming if it recognizes the opposition’s arguments. - It depends on the initial opinion of audience.

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# Two-sided appeal => argues its position but also recognizes and responds to opposing arguments. o One-sided appeals  most persuasive w ppl who already agree. o Two-sided appeals  most persuasive w ppl who disagree. Two-sided appeal is also more persuasive if ppl are (or will be) aware of opposing arguments. For optimists  positive persuasion is more effective. For pessimists  negative persuasion is more effective. Acknowledging the downside is critical if you’re doing damage control. o BUT, staying on message and denying the truth is a tactic taken in politics.  Primacy vs Recency. Primacy effect: info presented first is the most persuasive. (primary-first) o Most common effect. Recency effect: info presented last is the most persuasive.

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- When 2 persuasive messages are back-to-back & the audience responds after some time… o 1st message has the advantage  primacy effect.

- When 2 persuasive messages are separated in time & the audience responds right after the 2nd message… o 2nd message has the advantage  recency effect.  The Channel. - Channel of communication: way the message is delivered.  Active Experience & Passive Perception. - Influence of passively received appeals. o Repetition produces believability.  Repetition increases familiarity which produces believability. o Persuasion decreases as the significance and familiarity of the issue increases. (i.e.) “what aspirin should I buy?” vs. “is the government doing enough to reduce greenhouse gas emissions?” - Influence of active experience. o Strengthens attitudes. o Experience-based attitudes endure and influence our behaviour more. o Critical for maintaining bias and bigotry.  Personal & Media Influence. - Face-to-face appeals are most effective. o BUT, media still influences attitudes. - Media influences by two-step flow of communication. o Two-step flow of communication: process by which influence happens thru opinion leaders, who in turn influence the general public. o Media directly and indirectly affects ppl’s attitudes.

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o Order of persuasiveness  live (face-to-face), video, audio, and written.  The more lifelike the medium, the more persuasive the message. o Written messages are best comprehended and remembered.  Easy-to-understand messages are most persuasive when videotaped & difficult messages are most persuasive when written. The Audience. Characteristics of audience (that affect persuasiveness)  age and thoughtfulness. Age. o Explanations for attitude differences btwn generations.  Life cycle  attitudes change as ppl grow older.  Generational effects  attitudes don’t change; older ppl hold onto attitudes they adopted when they were young (which are different from those being adopted today by youngns).  Supported by evidence.  Old ppl’s attitudes change less than young ppl’s attitudes. Thoughtfulness. o Forewarning  telling the audience that the other party is going to try and convince them.  Reduces likelihood they’ll be persuaded. o Distraction that inhibits counter-arguing enhances persuasion.  Can help get a message across when negative info needs to be conveyed.

o When ppl’s attitudes are accessible, they process info thru central route, & when they aren’t, they process info thru peripheral route.  The more you think, the more you take the central route.  Stimulating thinking makes strong messages more persuasive and weak messages less so.

EXTREME PERSUASION: CULTS - Cult: groups typically characterized by (1) the distinctive ritual of their devotion to a god of a person, (2) isolation from the surrounding “evil” culture, and (3) a charismatic leader. o Aka “new religious movements” o A sect is a spinoff from a major religion. # How do cults use social influence tactics to change individual behaviour? # Ppl often internalize commitments made voluntarily, publicly, and repeatedly  cult leaders exploit this. - Attitudes follow behaviour. o Compliance breeds acceptance. # We want to be consistent (cognitive dissonance).  New members are immediately made active members of the team (behavioural commitments)  so that they strongly feel like part of the team.  This leads to cult initiates becoming committed advocates.

 The greater the personal commitment, the more the need to justify it. o Foot in the door phenomenon.  Cults’ recruitment strategy exploits the footin-the-door principle. - Persuasive elements. o The communicator  charismatic leader (that is perceived as credible). o The message  an emotionally compelling message. o The channel  lectures, small-group discussions, and direct social pressure. o The audience  young ppl (under 25) trying to find their way.

- Group effects. o The power of a group to shape members’ views and behaviour. o Cults separate members from their previous social support systems & isolates them w other cult members.  The group provides a sense of identity & defines reality. o Isolation makes members more susceptible to poorly supported arguments, social pressure, and the temptation to derogate non-group members. # The success of cults has resulted from 3 general techniques:

# Eliciting behavioural commitments. # Applying principles of effective persuasion. # Isolating members in like-minded groups.

RESISTING PERSUASION # Tactics for resisting unwanted persuasion.  Attitude Strength. - Certainty: refers to the lvl of subjective confidence that ppl attach to their attitudes. o Measures attitude strength. o High certainty  when ppl know what their attitudes are & believe that they’re right. - The stronger the attitude & higher the certainty  less likely to be persuaded.  Information-Processing Biases. - Strong attitudes bias how we process incoming info. o Ppl are motivated to incorporate info that’s consistent w their attitudes (to maintain cognitive consistency). o Ppl are better at incorporating new info if it’s consistent w their existing knowledge. - Info processing biases: o Selective exposure & attention to info.  Ppl avoid info that is incongruent w their beliefs.  Selective exposure: extent to which ppl’s attitudes affect the info they expose themselves to.

 Selective attention: extent to which ppl’s attitudes affect the info they attend to, once exposed.  (Experiment) Ehrlich found that car owners who had recently bought a car read more ads abt the cars they bought than ads abt the cars they considered but didn’t buy. o Selective processing & judgement.  Ppl dismiss info that is incongruent w their attitudes. (biased perception and judgement)  (Experiment) Participants rated the study that agreed w their own POV as more convincing and more scientifically rigorous than the study they disagreed with. o Selective memory.  Ppl forget info that is incongruent w their attitudes.  Selective memory: extent to which ppl’s attitudes affect recall and recognition of info.  Ppl remember info that’s congruent w their attitudes better than info that is incongruent w their attitudes.  Reactance. - Reactance: motive to protect our sense of freedom. o Happens when smone threatens our freedom to behave a certain way. - Attempts to restrict a person’s freedom often produces an anti-conformity “boomerang effect”.  Strengthening Personal Commitment. - Making a public commitment to one’s own position  makes us less susceptible to persuasion. # How to we get ppl to commit?

o Challenging beliefs.  Kiesler  ppl commit to their attitudes when they’re position is mildly attacked.  When committed ppl are mildly attacked, they become more committed. o Developing counter-arguments.  Attitude inoculation: exposing ppl to weak attacks on their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available. (McGuire) - Real life applications. o Inoculating children against peer pressure to smoke.  The percentage of cigarette smokers at an “inoculated” high school was much less than at a matched school using a more typical smoking education program....