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KEY ISSUE 1: WHERE ARE LANGUAGES DISTRIBUTED?

6 languages united Nations

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Fewer than ½ US HS students have studied a foreign language compared to 2/3 Dutch HS Students know 3

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Language is a system of communication through speech, a collection of sounds that a group of people understands to have the same meaning.

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Literary tradition refers to a system of written communication. Some spoken languages do not have this which makes it difficult to document distribution

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Many countries designate at least one official language to be used for official documents and public objects—e.g., road signs and money. Typically, most citizens understand the official language

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Earth’s heterogeneous collection of languages is most obvious ex. of cultural diversity

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Ethnologue (most authoritative source of languages) estimates: o

6909 languages 

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Only 11 (including English) are spoken by at least 100 million people 

4 (German, Portuguese, Spanish and Russian) are somewhat familiar to N. America

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6524 are spoken by fewer than 1 million people

World’s language organized into: o

Language Families: collection of languages related through a common ancestral language existed before recorded history

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Language Branches: collection of languages within a family related through a common ancestral language. Existed several thousand years ago. Differences are not as significant or as old as between language families. Archaeological evidence confirms the branches come from same family

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Language Groups: collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display similar grammar and vocabulary.

-CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES 

2/3 of the world’s population speak a language that belongs to the Indo-European or Sino-Tibetan language family.

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2 to 6 percent of the world’s population speak a language that fits into one of seven other language families.

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Remainder of population (5%) speaks a language belonging to one of 100 smaller families.

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Atkinson (researcher) believes languages are most complex and diverse in Africa-outside of Africa languages have had a shorted time to evolve

-DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGE FAMILIES

The two largest language families are...  Indo-European o Predominate language family in Europe, South Asia, North America and Latin America. 

Sino-Tibetan o Languages spoken in China and several smaller countries in Southeast Asia.  No single Chinese language  Most commonly used Mandarin & it is most-used language in the world. The official language of China and Taiwan. 

Small # of languages in China source of national strength and unity. Because written form of Chinese languages is same there is more unity.

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Structure of Chinese languages different from Indo-European languages 

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Written in logograms-symbols that represent words or meaningful parts of words, rather than sounds. Most logograms are compounds – (ex. symbol that representa river + additional strokes to alter river)

Other Asian Language Families o

Several other language families spoken by large numbers of people in East and Southeast Asia.

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Isolation on islands and peninsulas contributed to physical reason for development. 

Austronesian-mostly in Indonesia. Indonesia has 722 distinct languages and dialects. Javanese most popular language. Malagasy also in this family because of migration from Indonesia to Madagascar 2000 yrs ago.

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Austro-Asiatic-Based in SE Asia. Vietnamese most spoken of this family. Written with Roman alphabet and was devised in 17th century by Roman Catholic missionaries.

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Tai Kadai-Most languages of this family spoken in Thailand and portions of China. People speaking these may have migrated from Philippines because of similarities with Austronesian family

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Japanese-written in part with Chinese logograms it uses 2 system of phonetic symbols (similar to Western language) used in place of logograms or with them but structure is different from Chinese

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Korean-Written in system called hankul. Each letter represents a sound like in Western lang. ½ of Korean voc. Comes from Chinese words. Chinese/Japanese where most new words to describe new technology.

Languages of Southwest Asia and North Africa and Central Asia Two largest language families are... o Afro-Asiatic – Arabic is major language. o Official language in 24 countries of S.W. Asia and North Africa o One of the six official languages in U.N. o Most Muslims have some knowledge of Arabic because Quran written in that lang. o Hebrew is also in the family and is language of Judeo-Christian Bible o Altaic  Altaic language with most speakers is Turkish.  Originated in mountains btw Tibet & China-covers 5000 mile band of Asia

Altaic language became official language of several countries that gained independence when Soviet Union broke up—e.g., Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. Uralic- Estonia, Finland and Hungary speak languages belonging to this family Urlaic languages traced back to common language Proto-Uralic used 7000 yrs ago in present day Russia-carried to Europe and people maintained cultural identity in area dominated by Indo-European speakers 

o o

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African Language Families o More than 1,000 distinct languages have been documented. • Several thousand dialects recognized. • Most lack a written tradition. o Niger-Congo- 95% of Sub-Saharan speak languages of Niger-Congo family  Swahili  First language of 800,000 people – Official language of Tanzania  Second language of 30 million Africans  Local language used to speak in same village and Swahili used to speak with outsiders from different villages o Nilo-Saharan-languages of this family spoken in N-Central Africa(few million) o Despite relatively few speakers this family is divided into 6 branches and then numerous groups & subgroups. o Khoisan-languages in this group use clicking sounds o Hottentot most important one in this group

KEY ISSUE 2: WHY IS ENGLISH RELATED TO OTHER LANGUAGES?  English belongs to Indo-European Family (most spoken language) Indo-European divided into 8 branches:

-DISTRIBUTION OF INDO-EUROPEAN BRANCHES – FOUR MOST WIDELY SPOKEN BRANCHES Learning Outcome: Learn the distribution of the Germanic and Indo-Iranian branches of Indo-European  1. Germanic branch o German is structurally similar to English (both in W. Germanic group) o Spoken primarily in northwestern Europe and North America o W. Germanic divide into High and Low Germanic subgroups (based on high and low elevations of Germany)  English is classified in the Low Germanic group (Dutch-Netherlands, Flemish-dialect of Dutch-N. Belgium, Frisian-NE Netherlands  High Germanic group- S. mountains Germany-basis for modern German o This branch also includes 4 Scandinavian languages Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic all derived from Old Norse  2. Indo-Iranian branch o Has the most speakers of of Indo-European Family o Spoken primarily in South Asia o Subdivided into eastern group (Indic) and western group (Iranian)  Indic Eastern group Main element of cultural diversity in India is language

o 438 languages spoken o Official language of India is Hindi and English is 2nd official lang o India recognizes 22 scheduled languages and gov. of India is obligated to encourage use of these. o Hindi is spoken different way and could be regarded as a collections of many languages. Only one way to write, script called Devanagari o Urdu is spoken like Hindi but recognized as its own language-written with Arabic alphabet…most of its speakers are Muslims  Iranian (Western) Groupo Spoken in Iran and neighboring countries in Central Asia  Major Iranian group languages Persian (Farsi)-Iran  Kurdish-Kurds in W. Iran, N. Iraq and E. Turkey  Written in Arabic alphabet Learning Outcome: Learn the distribution of the Balto-Slavic and Romance Branches of Indo-European  3. Balto-Slavic Branch- Primarily in Eastern Europe o Slavic was once 1 language but divided Slavs migrated from Asia to Eastern Europe. Divided into (E Slavic, W Slavic, S Slavic and Baltic)  East Slavic and Baltic Groups  most widely used language is Russian followed by Ukrainian and Belarusan.  Soviet Union force others to learn Russian at end of WW 2 to foster cultural unity among countries diverse people.  A measure of cultural diversity in Sov. Union was so many non-Russian speakersdesire to use other languages was major drive in its break-up  West and South Slavic Groups o most spoken west Slavic language is Polish followed by Czech and Slovak  Czechoslovakia tried to balance 2 languages even though there were 2X as many Czech as Slovaks- announcers would called sports events in 1 language 1st ½ and then other 2nd ½. o Most widely spoken south language is Serbo-Croatian.  Used in Bosnia, Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia  Called this when all these countries were part of Yugoslavia  Now Bosnians and Croatians offended because once dominated by Serbs so they call it Bosnian or Croatian even though it is the same  Bosnians and Croats write the language in Roman alphabet and Montenegrans and Serbs use Cyrillic  Differences have crept into S. Slovic languages  Bosnian Muslims introduced Arabic words  Croats replaced words having a Serbian origin  In the future the language spoken by the 3 could be different enough to classify as 3 distinct languages 4. Romance Branch o Evolved from Latin language spoken by Romans 2000 yrs. ago o Spoken primarily in southwestern Europe and Latin America o 4 most widely used Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Italian.

o Regions where spoken languages tend to correspond to the political boundaries of Spain, Portugal, France, and Italy o 5th most widely used is Romanian-used in Romania and Moldova o Others include o Romansh-1 or 4 official languages in Switzerland o Catalan-Andorra and E. Spain (Barcelona -ORIGIN AND DIFFUSION OF LANGUAGE FAMILIES Learning Outcome: Understand the origin and diffusion of English Origin and Diffusion of English  Celtic was the original language spoken by people who inhabited the British Isles.  British Isles were invaded by Germanic-speaking tribes known as the Angles, Jutes, and Saxons.  Modern English evolved primarily from the languages spoken by Angles, Jutes, and Saxons  Today English people who trace their cultural heritage back to England are often called AngloSaxons  Later invasions of Vikings and Normans further transformed the language. o The Normans were from France and actually changed England’s official language to French for 300 years. Remnants of French remain in the English language. Big reason English is different from German now  Leaders spoke French but less educated still spoke English  During the 300 years-the Germanic language used by common people and French used by leaders mingled to form new language  English is not the most commonly spoken language but is the most widely spoken.  English migrated as England established British colonial empire.  English first diffused to North America beginning with Jamestown and Plymouth. Defeat of France by England for control of N. America established English  British took control of Ireland and it diffused there and later diffused to South Asia, the South Pacific, and Africa.  The United States has also helped diffuse English as well (Phillippines) Origin and Diffusion of Romance Languages  The Romance languages came from Latin.  Rise in importance of Rome 2000 yrs ago brought diffusion of Latin language  The Roman empire extended from the Atlantic Ocean on the west to the Black Sea on the east and encompassed all lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea.  Most people in the provinces controlled by Rome learned Vulgar Latin, which was the spoken form instead of the strict dialect that was used for official documents.  After the Roman Empire collapsed, communication among the former provinces declined creating variation in spoken Latin and then later distinct languages Origin and Diffusion of Indo-European  Since all members of Indo-European language (Germanic, Romance, Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian) families are related  it is generally accepted that it come from a common language- called Proto-Indo-European but linguist disagree on where the language originated and the process by which it diffused.  There are 2 hypotheses of the language origin: o Nomadic Warrior Theory- Archaeologist Marija Gimbutas thought he first Proto-IndoEuropean speakers were Kurgan people of central Asia, specifically the area near the border between present-day Russia and Kazakhstan.  The Kurgan people were among the first to domesticate horses and use chariots, leading them to migrate in search of grasslands for their animals. This took them westward through Europe, eastward to Siberia, and southeastward to Iran and South Asia, conquering much of Europe and South Asia between 3500 and 2500 B.C. o Sedentary Farmer Theory - Archaeologist Colin Renfrew, thought Indo-European language roots stretch back 2000 years before the Kurgans, in the eastern part of present-day Turkey in 6700 B.C.

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Renfrew argues Indo-European language diffused into Europe and South Asia along with agricultural practices rather than by military conquest. Language triumphed because speakers prosperous by growing own food instead of hunting

KEY ISSUE 3: WHY DO INDIVIDUAL LANGUAGES VARY AMONG PLACES? Learning Outcome: Describe the main dialects in the US  Dialect is a regional variation of a language distinguished by distinctive vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation. Generally, speakers of one dialect can understand speakers of another dialect. o A subdialect is a subdivision of a dialect.  Two subdialects of the same dialect have relatively few differences, primarily pronunciation and vocabulary.  Geographers are interested in these distinctive features because they reflect features of the environments where groups live. o Distribution of dialects is documented through study of particular words o Every word not used nationally has some geographic extent within the country and therefore has boundaries. These boundaries are called Isogloss.  Isogloss determined by collecting data from people in rural areas. Dialects of English  When speaker of a language migrate to other locations various dialects may develop  Because of # of speakers and widespread distribution English has lots of dialects o England VS US o Northern VS Southern -Dialects in the US  Originated because of differences in dialect among original settlers.  The 13 original colonies can be grouped into three dialect regions. o 1. New England  Inhabited by settlers from England  2/3 Puritans from E. Anglia in SE England and only few from N. England o 2. Southeastern o About 1⁄2 came from southeastern England but represented a diversity of social-class backgrounds.

Midlands o Most diverse group—e.g., Quakers from north of England, Scots and Irish, German, Dutch, and Swedish migrants. Current Dialect Differences in the East: o 3 major E. coast dialect regions have be joined by 4th-West o Many words are now nationally distributed because of mass media  But regional dialect differences persist in US (ex. Soft drink- NE, SW and St. Louis use soda, Mid-West, Great Plains and NW-pop, Southerners-coke Pronunciation Differenceso Pronunciation differences are more familiar but harder to draw a precise isoglosses  Southern-making word such as half into two syllables  NE- known for dropping the r sound Heart-hot- reflects speakers from south of England Diffusion of English dialect is result of westward mvmt o

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Some English words are specific to a dialect. o Rural life o Food o Objects from daily activities o Language differences tend to be greatest in rural areas because of limited interaction with people from other dialect regions. o Mass media has reduced the number of regionally distinctive words.

-Dialects in United Kingdom Learning Outcome: Understand the main ways British and US English dialects vary

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Languages with multiple dialects may recognize one as the standard language that is widely recognized as the most acceptable for government, business, education, and mass communication. o Ex. England’s is known as British Received Pronunciation (BRP). This was used by upper class in London and at Cambridge and Oxford and was adopted as the standard language o English has a variety of dialects that use different pronunciations, spellings, and meanings for particular words

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Strong regional differences persist in dialects in England, especially in rural areas. The dialects can be grouped into three main ones o Northern o Midland o Southern- divided into to two subdialects.  Southwesterners  Southeasterners Isoglosses btw English dialects have been moving reflecting patterns of migration. o New subdialect in London reflects migration of people from other countries o Nothern expansion of SE sub-dialect reflect outmigration of Londoners

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-Brisish and American English Dialect  English so different in US vs England because of isolation  English language is noticeably different than English spoken in England in three ways. o Vocabulary  Settlers in America encountered many new objects and experiences not present in England.  New animals were given names borrowed from Native Amnericans  New inventions acquired different names on each side of the Atlantic  EX. elevator vs lift, flashlight vs torch trunk vs boot

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 Climate and geography differ significantly between England and America. Spelling o Noah Webster sought to make English used in America distinct dialect from England to reduce cultural dependence by changing spellings of words in his dictionary.  Ex. color vs colour, honor vs honour Pronunciation o Main cause was limited interaction between speakers of varying dialects.  Main exchange was by letters vs direct speech  Americans pronounce unaccented syllables with more clarity than British  Pronunciation has changed more in England VS US  Single dialect did not emerge as British National Standard until the colonies had declared independence. Thus the people in Us do not speak “proper” English because when colonists left England “proper” English was not what it is today.

-Distinguishing between Languages and Dialects Learning Outcome: Understand why it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between a language and a dialect   

Dialects not just confined to English- Romance languages have dialects Romance banch demonstrates difficulties in distinguishing btw dialects vs distinct languages Global-local tensions are seen in the characterization of dialects and distinct languages. Migrations, increased interaction (connections), and other globalization processes are used to analyze the relationship between standard languages and dialects. Usually, the standard language strengthens while regional dialects are suppressed.

Spanish and Portuguese  Spanish and Portuguese have achieved worldwide significance because of the colonial era.  90% of people who speak these 2 languages live outside Europe mainly center and south America  Spanish is the official language of 18 Latin American states/Portuguese spoken in Brazil  The Portuguese and Spanish language spoken in the Western Hemisphere differs somewhat from the European versions.  Brought to America by Spanish and Portuguese explorers In Latin America new words have bee...